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Für den größten Teil der Bevölkerung ist Erwerbsarbeit zentral für die Teilhabe an der Gesellschaft. Das betrifft die finanziellen Möglichkeiten, am Konsum teilzunehmen, ebenso wie die sozialen Kontakte und die erfahrene Wertschätzung. Aber nicht jede Form der Erwerbsarbeit bietet gleichermaßen die Chance auf soziale Teilhabe. Einschränkungen der Teilhabemöglichkeiten sind dann gegeben, wenn die Beschäftigung nicht existenzsichernd entlohnt wird oder unsicher ist. Im Beitrag gehen wir besonders auf die Beschäftigung von Frauen und von Migrant:innen sowie auf Teilzeitarbeit und Leiharbeit ein. Wesentliche Erkenntnisse dieses Beitrags sind: In Österreich besteht ein Niedriglohnsektor, in dem das Risiko prekärer Arbeits- und Lebensverhältnisse erhöht ist. Am größten ist der Anteil der Niedriglohnbeschäftigten im Gastgewerbe. Neben den Branchen sind die Beschäftigungsformen für die Erklärung des Prekaritätsrisikos zentral, was am Beispiel der Teilzeitarbeit und der Arbeitskräfteüberlassung deutlich wird. Das Ausmaß von Prekarität im Wohlfahrtsstaat Österreich verweist auf eine Diskrepanz zwischen formal gültigen Arbeitsstandards und ihrer tatsächlichen Durchsetzung. For the majority of the population, gainful employment is central to participation in society. It provides financial opportunities to participate in consumption, as well as social contacts and the experience of esteem. However, not every form of gainful employment offers the same opportunities for social participation. The opportunities for participation are restricted if employment does not pay a living wage or is insecure. In this article, we focus on the employment of women and migrants as well as on part-time and temporary employment. The main findings of this article are: In Austria, there is a low-wage sector in which the risk of precarious working and living conditions is increased. The share of low-wage employees is highest in the hospitality industry. In addition to sectors, forms of employment are crucial factors in explaining the risk of precarity, as exemplified by part-time work and temporary employment. The extent of precarity in the Austrian welfare state points to a discrepancy between formally valid labor standards and their actual enforcement.

Although distinctions between full-time and part-time work are vital for understanding inequalities at work and home, consensus and critical reflection are lacking in how employment status should be defined. Full-time and part-time work are often represented as a binary split between those working under or over a specific number of hours. However, this paper, using exploratory mixed methods, evidences problems with assumptions based on working-hour thresholds and highlights the importance of workplace culture and household contexts. Using the UK Labour Force Survey we reveal ambiguities in the reporting of employment status for 12% of workers when comparing definitions based on number of working days, working hours and self-assessment. Ambiguities are particularly prevalent among working mothers with almost a third, who would be regarded as working full-time using hour-based measures, classified as ambiguous according to the measures used here. In-depth interviews with parents who self-classify as part-time workers, despite working over 35 hours a week, reveal mechanisms behind ambiguity within this group linked to organisational norms, previous working hours and divisions of household labour. The paper therefore argues workplace and household contexts are crucial to understanding employment status and recommends this should be taken into account in new multidimensional measures.

The article analyses the prevalence of part-time employment in different EU countries with a focus on the factors affecting the rate of part-time employment across the EU. Based on the literature review, a distinction is made between three groups of factors that are relevant for the rate of part-time employment, in particular, cyclical factors, political and institutional factors, and structural factors. The article analyses how these factors influence part-time employment rates in EU countries. The linear regression analysis based on EU-28 macroeconomic data for the period of 2007-2018 has shown that all three groups of determinants (i.e. cyclical, political and institutional as well as structural factors) affect the rate of part-time employment in the EU-28. Part-time employment is a complex phenomenon which depends on a number of factors. However, the regression analysis has found that the following political and institutional as well as structural independent variables are also significant predictors of part-time employment rates in EU Member States (EU-28): average annual wages, the tax rate on low wage earners, expenditures on children and family benefits as a percentage of gross domestic product, trade union density, and the activity rate of people aged 15-24 and 55-64. Cyclical factors (the unemployment rate in Model (1) and real GDP per capita in Model (2)) have also been found to have a significant effect on part-time employment in EU-28 countries.

A considerable share of the labor force consists of underemployed part-time workers: employed workers who, for various reasons, are unable to work as much as they would like to. Offering unemployment benefits to part-time unemployed workers is controversial. On the one hand, such benefits can strengthen incentives to take a part-time job rather than remain fully unemployed, thus raising the probability of obtaining at least some employment. On the other hand, these benefits weaken incentives for part-time workers to look for full-time employment. It is also difficult to distinguish people who work part-time by choice from those who do so involuntarily.

In den jüngeren Generationen wünschen sich Männer zunehmend ein neues männliches Rollenmodell und mehr Zeit für nicht-erwerbsbezogenen Lebensbereiche. Auch wenn die Teilzeitarbeit von Männern im Laufe der letzten 30 Jahre angestiegen ist, so besteht nach wie vor eine erhebliche Lücke in der Nutzung von Teilzeitarbeit zwischen Männern und Frauen. Vor diesem Hintergrund beschäftigt sich dieses Buch gezielt mit der Frage, welche strukturellen Barrieren für die Teilzeitbeschäftigung von Männern auf der Ebene von Berufen bestehen. Ausgehend von der Lebensverlaufsperspektive werden die Übergänge von Vollzeit- in Teilzeitbeschäftigung, der Wechsel aus Teilzeit- in Vollzeittätigkeiten sowie die Nachteile durch Teilzeitarbeit beim Aufstieg in eine Leitungsposition untersucht. Als strukturelle Einflussfaktoren werden die berufliche Geschlechtersegregation und berufliche Arbeitszeitarrangements in den Blick genommen.

Teilzeitarbeit in Führungsetagen ist eine Ausnahme, obwohl das Thema Arbeitszeit-reduzierung durch veränderte Familienarrangements und zunehmende berufliche Belastung wichtiger geworden ist. Daran hat weder der seit mehr als 20 Jahren bestehende Rechtsanspruch auf einen Teilzeitarbeitsplatz noch das im Jahr 2019 eingeführte Rückkehrrecht auf einen Vollzeitarbeitsplatz nach zeitlich begrenzten Arbeitszeitreduktionen etwas geändert. Dieser Beitrag nutzt Daten der Europäischen Arbeitskräfteerhebung, um Teilzeitarbeit von Führungskräften in Deutschland sowohl im zeitlichen als auch im internationalen Vergleich einzuordnen und damit ein empirisches Fundament für die gesellschaftliche Diskussion um Teilzeitführungskräfte zu legen. Die Auswertungen zeigen: In Deutschland arbeiteten im Jahr 2019 laut eigener Aussage rund 14 Prozent der Führungskräfte in Teilzeit. Im europäischen Vergleich gehört Deutschland damit zu den Ländern mit dem höchsten Anteil an teilzeitarbeitenden Führungskräften. Die Auswertungen zeigen auch, dass in Deutschland der Anteil der weiblichen Führungskräfte in Teilzeit mit rund 32 Prozent deutlich über dem der männlichen Führungskräfte liegt (rund 3 Prozent) und es große Unterschiede nach Altersgruppen gibt. Als Motiv für eine Arbeitszeitreduktion geben Führungskräfte, insbesondere Frauen, zumeist Pflege- und Betreuungsverpflichtungen. Forthcoming (accepted for publication: July 2021)

This article examines nonstandard employment and precariousness in four Nordic countries (Denmark, Sweden, Finland and Norway). Drawing on data from the Labour Force Survey from 1995 to 2015, the article investigates and compares recent developments of nonstandard employment in the countries and analyzes whether fixed-term contracts, temporary agency work, marginal part-time work and solo self-employment have precarious elements (measured as income or job insecurity). We conclude that nonstandard employment has remained rather stable in all four countries over time. However, although nonstandard employment seems to be largely integrated in the Nordic labor markets, it still entails precarious elements in certain countries in particular. Norway and Denmark stand out as having less insecure labor markets, while Finland and Sweden have more precariousness associated with nonstandard employment. We argue that these differences are explained by differences in the institutional contexts in the countries.

Comparing employment rates of mothers and childless women over the life course across the birth cohorts from 1940 to 1979 in Austria, we address the question of whether the parenthood effect on employment has declined. By following synthetic cohorts of mothers and childless women up to retirement age, we can study both the short-term and long-term consequences of having a child. We consider employment participation as well as working time and also perform analyses by educational level. Our study is based on the Austrian microcensus, conducted between 1986 and 2016, and uses descriptive methods, logistic regression models, and decomposition analysis. The results show that the increase in the proportion of part-time work has led to a declining work volume of mothers with young children, despite employment rates of mothers having increased across cohorts. Return to the workplace is progressively concentrated when the child is 3–5 years old, but the parenthood effect has become weaker only from the time children enter school. Part-time employment is primarily adopted (at least with younger children) by highly educated mothers and often remains a long-term arrangement.

Der Begriff Jobsharing bezeichnet Arbeitsmodelle, in denen sich zwei in Teilzeit arbeitende Personen im Tandem einen Arbeitsplatz teilen. Der Fokus der hier vorliegenden Studie liegt dabei auf Positionen mit Führungsverantwortung bzw. mit anspruchsvollen Expertenaufgaben. Untersucht werden die Fragen: (1) Wie gestalten Unternehmen die Rahmenbedingungen und Regeln des Jobsharing? (2) Wie nehmen die Jobsharer*innen die Arbeit im Tandem sowie die Auswirkungen auf Arbeitsorganisation, Karrierechancen und die Work-Life-Balance wahr? (3) Welche Typen von Jobsharingtandems gibt es und wie unterscheiden sie sich im Hinblick auf Funktionsweise und Arbeitsorganisation? Die Untersuchung beruht auf einer 2019 durchgeführten Befragung in zehn Unternehmen, in denen Jobsharing praktiziert wird, und kombiniert drei Arten der Datenerhebung und Analyse: Interviews mit Vertreter*innen der Personalabteilungen, eine quantitative Onlinebefragung der Jobsharer*innen und leitfadengestützte Interviews mit Jobsharer*innen. Die Studie zeigt, dass die befragten Jobsharer*innen ihre Arbeitssituation insgesamt sehr positiv bewerten. Am kritischsten werden die Karriereeffekte, also der Einfluss der Arbeit im Jobsharing auf ihre Chancen des beruflichen Fortkommens, sowie der Zeitdruck und Arbeitsstress wahrgenommen. Zugleich zeigt die Studie, dass es unterschiedliche Typen von Jobsharingtandems gibt, die sich im Hinblick auf Zustandekommen und auch Arbeitssituation unterscheiden: "symbiotische Karrieretandems", "fremdbestimmte Tandems", "Sparringspartner*innen im höheren Management" und "strategische Bündnisse im höheren Management". The term job sharing refers to work arrangements in which two people working part-time share a workplace in tandem. The focus of this study is on job sharing positions with leadership responsibility or demanding expert tasks. The following questions are examined: (1) How do companies shape the general conditions and rules of job sharing? (2) How do job sharers perceive the work in a tandem and its effects on work organization, career opportunities and work-life balance? (3) What types of job sharing tandems exist and how do they differ in terms of work organisation? The study was conducted in 2019 in ten companies which offer job sharing. It combines three types of data collection and analysis: interviews with HR representatives, a standardized online survey of job sharers and semi-structured in-depth interviews with job sharers. The study shows that job sharers assess their work situation very positively overall. Aspects which are seen more critically are the career effects, i.e. the influence of job sharing on their chances of career advancement, as well as time pressure and work stress. In addition, the study shows that there are four types of job-sharing tandems that differ in terms of how they come about and how the work situation is perceived: "symbiotic career tandems", "involuntary tandems", "sparring partners in senior management" and "strategic alliances in senior management".

The article presents an analysis of the association between labor market characteristics related to female employment and the prevalence of in-work poverty. We compare two relative measures of in-work poverty: The individual definition refers to workers whose salary is below 60% of the median, while the household-level definition refers to individuals whose household income is below 60% of the median. Microdata from the 2014 EU-SILC survey and macrodata on involuntary part-time employment and female labor market participation are used to perform a multilevel analysis on 31 European countries. The results show a positive relationship between involuntary part-time work and in-work poverty according to the household definition. Female labor market participation is positively associated with the individual definition and negatively with the household one. However, after controlling for the level of within-country income inequality, only the effect of the female employment rate remains positive and significant for the individual in-work. These results shed light on the multifaceted role of labor market characteristics related to female employment and their implications for policy. We argue that the promotion of female participation should be combined with explicit measures to reduce the disadvantageous position of women in the labor market.

Part-time employment has repeatedly been proposed as a solution for integrating women into the labor market; however, empirical evidence supporting a causal link is mixed. In this text, we investigate the extent to which increasing part-time employment is a valid means of augmenting women’s labor market participation. We pay particular attention to the institutional context and the related characteristics of part-time employment in European countries to test the conditions under which this solution is a viable option. The results reveal that part-time employment may strengthen female employment in Continental Europe and especially in Southern Europe, where an increase in part-time employment—even if it is demand-side driven—leads to greater employment participation among women. We also discuss some policy implications and trade-offs: Although part-time work can lead to higher numbers of employed women, it does so at the cost of increasing gendered labor market segregation. We analyze data from the European Labor Force Survey (EU-LFS) 1992–2011 for 19 countries and 188 regions and exploit regional variation over time while controlling for time-constant regional characteristics, time-varying regional labor market features, and (time-varying) confounding factors at the national level.

This article examines the labour market outcomes of immigrants in Spain, a country that has become a migration destination only since the end of the 1990s. Differentiating between first and second generation of immigrant descent, we compare the labour market involvement of the main ethnic groups with the majority group. One particular focus is to understand which minorities have been hit the hardest by the Great Recession. To this end, we use data from the European Union Labour Force Survey for the years 2008 and 2014, and more specifically the two ad-hoc modules on the labour market situation of migrants. Analysing men and women separately, we run a set of multivariate logistic regression models to control for compositional differences. In this way, we examine ethnic gaps not only in labour force participation but also in the degree of underutilisation of human capital, measured as workers’ level of over-education as well as the incidence of involuntary part-time employment. Our results show that while most origin groups do not show significantly lower employment participation than the majority group, the employment quality of immigrants in terms of involuntary part-time work and over-education is substantially worse, especially since the crisis. This article is part of the issue “The Race for Highly-Skilled Workers”, edited by Neli Demireva (University of Essex, UK) and Ivana Fellini (University of Milano Bicocca, Italy).

This paper discusses the case law of the CJEU over the past five years on the principle of nondiscrimination in relation to part-time and fixed-term workers. This case law shows certain shortcomings when it comes to the principle of non-discrimination of part-time and fixed-term workers, partly because the CJEU's room for interpretation itself of course is limited by EU regulations and partly because, as we shall see below, its own way of interpreting them. The contribution is structured as follows. First, a brief overview is provided on the limited reach of the principle of non-discrimination as framed in the Framework Agreements. This is followed by an analysis of the case law on part-time work and, after that, the case law on fixed-term work. The conclusion addresses some of the main issues that raise due to the Framework Agreements' set-up and the CJEU's interpretation of them.

The share of non-standard jobs in total employment has increased in Germany over recent decades. Research tends to attribute this in particular to labour market re-forms and socio-economic change. However, it becomes clear upon closer inspection that macro trends alone cannot provide satisfactory explanations. A striking yet rarely acknowledged aspect of the development in Germany is a large occupational heterogeneity, which is true for both current working conditions and trajectories of change. A process of asymmetric change has been witnessed in recent years, increasing the gap between occupational groups. Given this process, it seems increasingly questionable to aggregate data at the national level. Therefore, this paper analyses the role of different types of non-standard employment across occupations in Germany, explaining variation between occupations with reference to institutional conditions, industrial relations and patterns of labour supply and demand, in particular skill requirements.

Inhalt: C Beschäftigungsformen; C.I Einführung und Resümee; C.II Entwicklung und Struktur der Beschäftigungsverhältnisse; C.III Teilzeitbeschäftigung; C.IV Zeitarbeit und Befristungen; C.V Beschäftigungsformen im europäischen Vergleich; Literatur zu Kapitel C.

Die empirische Evidenz zur Verteilung der Arbeitszeit unselbstständig Beschäftigter in Österreich zeigt eine hohe Heterogenität, insbesondere zwischen Frauen und Männern (Gender-Time-Gap). Während Frauen durchschnittlich mehr Zeit pro Woche für unbezahlte Tätigkeiten aufwenden als Männer, sind Männer im Durchschnitt einen Vollzeit-Tag pro Woche (8,2 Stunden) länger in bezahlter Beschäftigung als Frauen. Der beträchtliche Unterschied in der durchschnittlichen Wochenerwerbsarbeitszeit (Männer 39,8 und Frauen 31,6 Stunden) geht primär darauf zurück, dass fast die Hälfte der Frauen (49,4%) teilzeitbeschäftigt ist und viele Männer Überstunden leisten. Grund dafür sind traditionelle Rollenbilder sowie die ungleiche Verteilung der Hausarbeit und der Betreuung von Kindern und Pflegebedürftigen. So dominiert in Paarhaushalten mit Kindern unter 15 Jahren das Zuverdienst-Modell: Der Mann ist in Vollzeit erwerbstätig, die Frau in Teilzeit. Gleichzeitig entspricht bei rund einem Viertel der unselbstständig Beschäftigten die tatsächlich geleistete Wochenerwerbsarbeitszeit nicht dem gewünschten Ausmaß: Frauen würden durchschnittlich gerne mehr Stunden pro Woche berufstätig sein, Männer weniger. Mit zunehmendem Alter wird der Abstand zwischen gewünschter und realisierter Arbeitszeit größer. Die Studie zeigt arbeitszeitbezogene Ansatzpunkte zur Förderung einer ausgeglichenen Verteilung der Erwerbsarbeitszeit von Frauen und Männern über ihr Erwerbsleben ebenso wie Maßnahmen für spezifische Lebensphasen, die eine Anpassung der individuellen Erwerbsarbeitszeit zur Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und außerberuflichen Verpflichtungen bzw. Interessen ermöglichen. The empirical evidence for the distribution of the working hours of dependent workers in Austria shows a high heterogeneity, especially between women and men (gender time gap). While women spend an average more time per week on unpaid activities than men, men are on average a full-time day per week (8.2 hours) longer in paid employment than women. The significant difference in average weekly working hours (men 39.8 and women 31.6 hours) is primarily due to the fact that almost half of women (49.4%) work part-time and many men work overtime. The reason for this is traditional gender roles, as well as the uneven distribution of domestic work and the care of children and dependent persons. For example, in couples with children under the age of 15, the modified breadwinner model dominates: the man is full-time working, the woman part-time. At the same time, about a quarter of the employed is unsatisfied with their actual weekly working hours: on average women prefer working more hours a week, men less. With increasing age, the distance between preferred and realized weekly working hours increases. The study shows working-time approaches to promote a balanced distribution of the working time of women and men over their working lives, as well as measures for specific life stages, which allow an adaptation of the individual working time to reconcile work and non-work commitments or interests.

This contribution investigates the link between female labour force participation and household income inequality using data from the Swiss Household Panel (2000-2014). Through index decomposition analyses, we find that female labour force participation has slightly attenuated household income inequality over time. Women’s entry into the labour market, higher work percentages within part-time work - but not the shift from part-time to full-time work - and the weak correlation in partner’s earnings have contributed to this effect.

After childbirth, women often interrupt their careers. These interruptions are associated with negative consequences for later employment, which are greatly influenced by the duration of the interruption. We analyse the influence of occupational characteristics on this duration, as occupations are crucially important for career trajectories in Germany. Specifically focusing on occupational sex segregation, the occupational wage level and the share of part-time workers in occupations, we test two competing hypotheses: on the one hand, lower wages in female-dominated occupations should lead to longer employment interruptions due to lower opportunity costs. On the other hand, a higher ratio of part-time workers should lead to shorter interruptions due to better reconciliation between family and work. In addition, we analyse whether the proportion of women in a given occupation influences the duration of employment interruptions. We test these hypotheses using data from the National Educational Panel Study (starting cohort 6), combined with occupational information from the Sample of Integrated Labour Market Biographies and the German Microcensus. We focus on family-related employment interruptions after the birth of the first child between 1992 and 2010. The results of our discrete event history models indicate that higher wages lead to shorter breaks, while the part-time rate and the proportion of women in an occupation have no significant effects. Nach der Geburt eines Kindes unterbrechen viele Frauen ihre Erwerbstätigkeit. Diese familienbedingten Erwerbspausen führen zu Karrierenachteilen, deren Ausmaß entscheidend von der Dauer der Unterbrechung abhängt. Aufgrund der nachhaltigen Bedeutung des Berufs für den gesamten Erwerbsverlauf in Deutschland untersuchen wir, inwieweit berufliche Merkmale diese Dauer beeinflussen. Dabei konzentrieren wir uns auf den Effekt beruflicher Geschlechtersegregation und die damit einhergehenden Berufsmerkmale Lohnniveau und Teilzeitquote und testen gegenläufige Hypothesen: Einerseits sollte das geringere Lohnniveau in frauendominierten Berufen durch niedrigere Opportunitätskosten zu längeren Erwerbsunterbrechungen führen. Andererseits sollten sich hohe Teilzeitquoten in frauendominierten Berufen aufgrund der besseren Vereinbarkeitsmöglichkeiten verkürzend auf Erwerbsunterbrechungen auswirken. Zudem wird untersucht, ob der Frauenanteil selbst darüber hinaus einen eigenständigen Effekt auf die Unterbrechungsdauer aufweist. Wir testen diese Hypothesen anhand von Daten des Nationalen Bildungspanels (Startkohorte 6), die um berufliche Merkmale beruhend auf der Stichprobe der Integrierten Arbeitsmarktbiographien und des Mikrozensus erweitert werden. Wir betrachten dazu Erwerbsunterbrechungen nach der Geburt des ersten Kindes in den Jahren 1992 bis 2010. Anhand von diskreten Ereignisdatenmodellen zeigt sich, dass ein hohes berufliches Lohnniveau die Rückkehr von Müttern auf den Arbeitsmarkt beschleunigt, während der Teilzeitanteil und der Frauenanteil selbst keinen signifikanten Einfluss aufweisen.

This study examines how within-couple inequalities, that is power differences between men and women in a partnership, act as predictors of transitions from full-time to part-time employment applying Heckman corrected probit models in three different institutional and cultural contexts; Eastern Germany, Western Germany and the United Kingdom. The analyses show that when women are in a weaker position within their relationships they are more likely to drop-out of full-time work, but that this propensity varies by context. The authors also find an increased tendency over time for women to leave full-time for part-time employment in both Eastern and Western Germany, but observe no such trend in the UK. This is suggestive of ongoing incompatibilities in the institutional support for equality in dual-earning in Germany. The study uses longitudinal data covering the period 1992 until 2012 from the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) for Germany and from the British Household Panel (BHPS) and the ‘Understanding Society’ data for the UK. Akzeptierte Manuskriptfassung (postprint) / Accepted version (postprint)

In recent years, many employees have gained more control over temporal and locational aspects of their work via a variety of flexible work arrangements, such as flexi-time and telehomework. This temporal and locational flexibility of work (TLF) is often seen as a means to facilitate the combination of work and private life. As such it has been recommended as a policy to increase the average number of working hours of part-time workers. To the best of our knowledge, the effectiveness of this policy instrument has not been tested empirically yet. We therefore analyse whether flexi-time and telehomework arrangements increase the number of actual, contracted, and preferred working hours. Based on Dutch household panel data, our results indicate that the link between TLF and working hours is quite weak. Telehomework is associated with moderate increases in actual hours, but not in contracted or preferred hours. Flexi-time generally does not seem to be associated with an increase in hours worked. Despite positive effects on job satisfaction and working time fit, we do not find any convincing evidence of a positive effect of TLF on labour supply. JEL classification: J22, J32, M52, M54

We construct new monthly time series of U.S. labor market stocks and flows from 1976 onwards. These data reveal an upward secular trend in turnover between full-time and part-time employment, and a large cyclical component chiefly explained by fluctuations in involuntary part-time work. Both short-run and long-run reallocations occur mostly without an intervening spell of non-employment, and therefore cannot be uncovered without splitting employment into finer categories. We emphasize the importance of our findings for several active debates, such as the slowdown in U.S. labor-market dynamism, changes in job stability and security, and the assessment of labor-market slack.

This paper investigates how cumulative disadvantages of non-employment and non-standard work are affecting careers and subjective well-being of older Europeans from 13 countries. In previous research, unemployment, labour market inactivity and part-time work had negative effects, however they were seldom addressed in a common study and over the whole career. In two complementary analyses, first, the employment history of older Europeans is analysed with sequence analysis methods to show how non-employment and part-time work shape careers and to illustrate gender differences. In a second step, adverse career components are used to exemplify cumulative disadvantages on subjective well-being in old age. Data from the Survey of Health, Aging and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) is used for the analyses. After optimal matching and clustering of the retrospective employment history, the results indicate that women experience more turbulent careers with more periods of non-employment and part-time employment. The analyses of subjective well-being show that labour market inactivity and unemployment have negative effects in old age for men, but less for women. Part-time employment has a differentiated effect for women, however not for men.

This study explores the variations in the relationship between women's employment and educational attainment, as well as in women's employment status itself, in 12 industrial societies, referring to welfare regime typology. The International Social Survey Programme (ISSP）2012 survey on 'Family and Changing Gender Roles IV' is used for cross－national analysis. The results suggest that women's employment rate can be explained by the type ofwelfare regime to a certain extent. However, once we break down the employment rate into full-time and part-time components, a great varlatlon emerges within welfare regime. With regard to the relationship between women's educational attainment and employment, welfare regime only partly explains the variation among the 12 countries. Furthermore the lselationship between womens full-time and part-time employment and their educational attainment varies within each type of welfare regime.

Überstunden und Arbeitszeitkonten sind wichtige betriebliche Instrumente der Arbeitszeitflexibilität, um die Arbeitszeiten der Beschäftigten vorübergehend zu verkürzen oder auszuweiten. In der jüngeren Vergangenheit wurden sie insbesondere im Kontext der Bewältigung der Wirtschafts- und Finanzkrise 2008/2009 diskutiert und untersucht. Trotz vorhandener empirischer Befunde gibt es Aspekte, die bislang nicht ausreichend beleuchtet sind. Diese greift Ines Zapf auf und untersucht auf Basis von Personen- und Betriebsdaten sowohl die Arbeitsangebots- als auch die Arbeitsnachfrageseite: So konzentrieren sich Studien zu Überstunden meist auf Männer und/oder Vollzeitbeschäftigte. Wie sieht es bei den Frauen, bei Teilzeit- und geringfügig Beschäftigten aus? Bisherige Studien untersuchen Arbeitszeitkonten vor allem auf der Betriebsebene. Aber welche Faktoren bestimmen den Zugang der Beschäftigten zu einem Arbeitszeitkonto? Overtime work and working-time accounts are important instruments of working-time flexibility in establishments to reduce or increase the working hours of employees temporarily. In the recent past, these instruments were intensively discussed and analysed against the background of the global financial and economic crisis in 2008/2009. Although empirical studies about overtime work and working-time accounts exist, there are still aspects which are not sufficiently addressed. Based on individual and establishment data, Ines Zapf addresses these aspects and analyses the labour supply and labour demand side: Existing studies of overtime work mostly only consider men and/or full-time employees. What about women, part-time employees and employees in marginal employment? So far, existing studies analyse working-time accounts on the establishment side. But what determines the employees' access to working-time accounts?

Part-time work is one of the most well-known « atypical » working time arrangements in Europe, shaping working time regimes across countries and mapping work-life balance patterns. Comparative studies on part-time work across European countries have pointed to large differences in the development, extent and quality of part-time employment. To explain such differences, the focus has been mainly on labor supply consideration and on public policies and/or institutional arrangements pertaining to working-time combined with social practices in relation to gender conventions. In contrast to previous studies focusing on the supply side, the originality of our research is to investigate the demand-side of part-time work and to examine how and why companies use part-time work. The main objective of this paper is to analyze the impact of firms’ characteristics sector specificity and countries’ institutional arrangements on the use and intensity of part-time jobs at the establishment level. Based on a large and unique sample of European firms (more than 21 000 establishments) operating in 21 member states, we use multilevel multinomial modeling in a Bayesian environment. This approach has the advantage to identify and better disentangle the impact of institutional factors (country level), from industry specific factors (sector level) and firm specific factors (establishment level). Our results suggest that the observed variations in the extent of parttime workers at the establishment level is determined more by country-specific features, such as societal and institutional factors, than by industry specific factors. In other words, the institutional set-up or the overall working time regime seems to play a stronger role than organizational or productive constraints.

In this paper, I build a model of family labor supply and residential choices that explicitly incorporates the full-time or part-time work decisions of married women. The model can explain why women’s participation patterns in full-time and part-time work vary significantly in areas that are geographically close but differ in real estate prices. The model suggests that high commuting costs could be one of the main obstacles for women’s full-time employment in places like the Tokyo Metropolitan Area.

espanolSe pretende analizar la relacion entre el trabajo a tiempo parcial y la desigualdad salarial en los trabajadores de la industria manufacturera en Mexico por entidad federativa en el periodo 2005-2015. Se utilizaron datos de los segundos trimestres de la Encuesta Nacional de Ocupacion y Empleo (ENOE) de la decada de estudio para obtener la poblacion ocupada a tiempo parcial y estimar el indice de Gini (que refleja la desigualdad salarial). Asimismo, se estimo un modelo de efectos aleatorios empleando datos de panel. Los resultados arrojaron una relacion estadisticamente significativa entre el trabajo a tiempo parcial y el indice de Gini por entidad. EnglishThis research aims to analyze the relationship between part-time work and wage inequality in Mexico's manufacturing industry workers by entity, 2005-2015. Second quarter data from the National Survey of Occupation and Employment were used to obtain the percentage of employed population at part-time work and to calculate a Gini Index (wage inequality). Random effects model using panel data was estimated. The results showed a statistically significant relationship between part-time work and Gini Index by state.

I. INTRODUCTION The "1.03 million yen ceiling," which in this paper refers to the tendency of married women in Japan who work part time to limit their earnings to no more than 1.03 million yen (approximately 10,000 U.S. dollars), has recently attracted much attention in policy debates over Social Security and tax reform in Japan. Wives of salaried husbands whose earnings do not exceed 1.03 million yen are eligible to receive several types of benefits. Their benefits include the following: (1) a married woman with low earnings is eligible for Social Security and health-care benefits through her husband's coverage, with no additional premium contribution for the wife; (2) the husband can claim the "exemption for spouse" or the "special exemption for spouse" on his income tax return; and (3) the husband often receives an allowance for his spouse from his employer if the wife's earnings are lower than a specified threshold. The work disincentive effects of the 1.03 million yen ceiling have been pointed out by Higuchi (1995), Abe and Ohtake (1997), Nagase (2001), Nagase and Nawata (2005), and Akabayashi (2006), among others, in the context of static labor supply. In the previous literature, the 1.03 million yen ceiling has been criticized for two reasons. First, it distorts labor supply of married women and causes a loss in efficiency. Evidence shows that the earnings of married, part-time, female workers are heavily concentrated around the 1 million yen level (Abe and Ohtake, 1997; Abe, 2003; Oishi, 2003; Nagase and Nawata 2005; Akabayashi 2006). If married women are reducing their working hours even though the marginal product of their labor exceeds their marginal disutility from it, then the ceiling is introducing distortions in labor supply. (1) The second criticism is based on equity considerations. Married women who earn less than or equal to 1.03 million yen annually pay no income tax and no Social Security contributions, even though they are eligible for health and public pension benefits through their husbands' coverage. (2) The wife's earnings up to 1.03 million yen are almost tax free, while any other middle-income person earning an additional 1 million yen would be taxed at a marginal rate of at least 19%. (3) Although the 1.03 million yen ceiling has attracted much attention, little is known about the dynamic consequences of the ceiling. Previous studies examining the effect of the ceiling on part-time labor supply have almost always used a static framework. However, part-time workers in Japan have a relatively strong attachment to work (Ohtake, 2000). In this paper. I use a simple dynamic labor supply model to assess the behavioral consequences of the 1.03 million yen ceiling. (4) The labor supply schedule in a dynamic model has properties that are not present in a static framework, which I call the "spillover effect." The dynamic welfare cost of the ceiling is also discussed. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section II provides a brief summary of the Japanese income and Social Security participation rules and presents empirical evidence on how these rules affect labor supply of married women. Section III presents a dynamic labor supply model, examines the properties of optimal labor supply choices, and discusses the implications of these choices on the welfare cost. Section IV illustrates the results of Section III with a numerical example. Section V concludes. II. TAX, SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEMS, AND STYLIZED FACTS In this section, aspects of the income tax and Social Security systems concerning the labor supply of married women are briefly explained. (5) In Japan, Social Security enrollment rules and firm benefit policies create work disincentives for married women. In addition, two sets of empirical evidence are presented as background to the subsequent analysis. A. Tax and Social Security Systems The social insurance participation rules relevant to low-income married women are as follows: when the wife's earnings are below 1. …

Based on data collected in the “ifb-Berufsrückkehrstudie”, I examine what characteristics mothers have that take on part-time work while still receiving parental leave benefits as well as their reasons for doing so. Hypotheses for explaining this behavior refer to the avoidance of negative consequences for mothers’ careers and their aspirations for reconciling work and family. An early return to work is significantly more often interconnected with the reappointment to the previous workplace which, in turn, is meaningful for the avoidance of negative consequences for their careers. Moreover, self-employed women significantly more often resume part-time work after child birth during the period of the provision of parental leave benefits. On one hand, in comparison to employed women, self-employed women’s employment is less secure and thus requires an early return to work. On the other hand, the former’s flexible work schedule and the often reduced work hours allow them to reconcile work and family tasks. The data hint to evidence for the opportunity cost hypothesis, for the importance of professional constraints and also for the familywork reconciliation hypothesis. In sum, the reasons of part-time employment while receiving parental leave benefits are multifaceted. Zusammenfassung Im vorliegenden Beitrag wird auf Basis der Daten der ifb-Berufsrückkehrstudie untersucht, welche Mütter noch während des Bezugs von Elterngeld eine Teilzeiterwerbstätigkeit aufnehmen und was ihre Gründe hierfür sind. Hypothesen hierzu beziehen sich auf die Vermeidung negativer Konsequenzen für die berufliche Entwicklung und thematisieren das Streben nach Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Familie. Ein früher Wiedereinstieg ist signifikant häufiger mit der Rückkehr auf den alten Arbeitsplatz beim vorherigen Arbeitgeber verbunden und ist vor allem hinsichtlich der Vermeidung beruflicher Nachteile durch eine Erwerbsunterbrechung von Bedeutung. Außerdem arbeiten Selbstständige nach der Geburt ihres Kindes signifikant häufiger im Rahmen einer Teilzeiterwerbstätigkeit noch während des Elterngeldbezugs. Zum einen erfordert der im Vergleich zu Beschäftigten weniger abgesicherte Erwerbsstatus eine schnelle Wiederaufnahme der Erwerbstätigkeit. Zum anderen ermöglichen flexiblere Arbeitszeiten, häufig in reduziertem Umfang, die Vereinbarkeit beruflicher und familialer Anforderungen. In den Daten lassen sich Hinweise für die Opportunitätskostenhypothese, die Bedeutung beruflicher Zwänge sowie für die Hypothese zur Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Familie finden. Die Gründe für eine Teilzeiterwerbstätigkeit während des Bezugs von Elterngeld sind demnach vielschichtig., JFR - Journal of Family Research, Vol 27 No 1 (2015)

The thesis of the article is that strong growth in the number of part-time jobs in The Netherlands between 1973 and 1991 negatively affected the labour market participation of men, especially lower educated men. The thesis consists of a behavioural component, which explains why lower educated men are not attracted and do not gain access to part-time jobs, and an institutional component, which explains why the labour market position of lower educated men in The Netherlands deteriorated relatively rapidly during the period 1973-91. The thesis is underpinned by an empirical analysis of labour market participation of lower educated male workers in part-time and full-time jobs. Competing theses, such as upgrading of the job structure, displacement by better educated workers and sector shift from manufacturing to services, are tested empirically, but prove to be less convincing explanations for the deteriorated labour market position of lower educated men than the explanation of the growth of part-time jobs.

Teilzeitarbeit ist ein Phänomen, das in Österreich in den letzten zwanzig Jahren das Erwerbsleben grundlegend verändert hat. Dies hat aber auch weitreichende Konsequenzen für die individuellen, sozialen und familiären Lebensumstände. Ein neues Working Paper bietet nun eine differenzierte Darstellung über die Entwicklung und das Ausmaß von Teilzeitarbeit und behandelt im Detail folgende Fragen: Reduzieren Personen ihre Arbeitszeit von Vollzeit auf Teilzeit oder ist Teilzeit ein Schritt in die Erwerbstätigkeit? Arbeiten Personen dauerhaft in Teilzeit oder wechseln sie ihr Arbeitszeitarrangement? Ist Teilzeit eine Notlösung, da keine Vollzeitstelle gefunden wurde oder waren persönliche Gründe für die Wahl ausschlaggebend? Darüber hinaus werden internationale Vergleichsdaten zur Bedeutung, zur Häufigkeit und zur Motivation für Teilzeitarbeit in anderen Ländern präsentiert.

"Der vorliegende Beitrag fragt, inwieweit es im Verlauf der Wirtschaftskrise in den letzten Jahren zu einer Verschiebung in den Risiken verschiedener ArbeitnehmerInnengruppen kam, in einfacher, aber auch mehrfacher atypischer Beschäftigung (z. B. Teilzeit ohne Fixanstellung) zu arbeiten. Methodisch wird über bisherige Arbeiten zu Österreich hinausgegangen, indem einzelne Merkmale Beschäftigter nicht nur isoliert betrachtet, sondern mittels logistischer Regressionsmodelle simultan in die Analysen einbezogen werden. Im Ergebnis zeigt sich, dass immer mehr Menschen, vor allem in Zeiten der Krise, von einfacher, aber auch mehrfacher atypischer Beschäftigung zugleich betroffen sind. Junge Beschäftigte und Personen im öffentlichen Dienst sind dabei häufig befristet beschäftigt. Doch auch HilfsarbeiterInnen und Personen mit Migrationshintergrund müssen immer häufiger in atypischer Beschäftigung - und hier vor allem in Leiharbeit - arbeiten. Angehörige qualifizierter und höherer Berufsklassen haben hingegen - mit Ausnahme von Werkvertragstätigkeit - durchwegs niedrigere Risiken, atypisch beschäftigt zu sein." (Autorenreferat) "This article deals with the question, whether the Austrian labour market underwent a shift in risks for special groups of workers when it comes to single and multiple non-standard employment (e.g., temporary part-time work) in times of economic crisis. Methodically, the article is innovative for Austria insofar, as logistic regression models are applied that do not only look on isolated characteristics of workers, but integrate them simultaneously into a regression model. Findings suggest that especially in times of economic crisis, more and more people work in common, but also multiple types on non-standard employment. Especially young workers and employees in the public sector are often temporary employed. But also unskilled workers and workers not born in Austria are facing increasing risks of having to work in non-standard employment - and here particularly temporary agency work. On the contrary, members of qualified and upper service classes - with the exception of contract work - show only lower risks of being non-standard employed." (author's abstract)

In this paper, we assess the impact of firms introducing part-time work schemes for gradual labour market exit of elderly workers on their employees’ labour market outcomes. The analysis is based on unique linked employer-employee data that combine high-quality survey and administrative data. Our results suggest that partial or gradual retirement options offered by firms are an important tool to alleviate the negative effects of low labour market attachment of elderly workers in ageing societies. When combined with financial incentives to hire unemployed or young jobseekers as replacement, they seem to be particularly beneficial, especially when labour market conditions are difficult. Under such circumstances, they can even have positive spill-over effects on younger workers. Firms should thus be encouraged to offer such schemes.

Pel que fa a les novetats introduïdes al mercat de treball i els seus resultats, a Alemanya li està anant relativament bé. De fet, i en contra de la tendència europea, Alemanya ha vist augmentar les seves taxes d'ocupació i el descens de la desocupació durant la crisi econòmica. Però, des de les reformes desreguladores de Hartz de principis i mitjans dels anys 2000, l'última dècada ha estat testimoni de l'emergència de formes no convencionals d'ocupació i el creixement del sector de baixos salaris. Un dels objectius de les reformes Hartz era augmentar les oportunitats d'ocupació, entre d'altres en el sector de baixos salaris i especialment en el sector serveis. Els treballadors no estàndard, i entre aquests aquells amb contractes de durada determinada, els treballadors d'agències temporals, els treballadors fixos a temps parcial i els mini-jobbers són els, comparativament, més afectats pels baixos salaris. Con respecto a las novedades introducidas en el mercado de trabajo y sus resultados, a Alemania le está yendo relativamente bien. De hecho, y en contra de la tendencia europea, Alemania ha visto aumentar sus tasas de empleo y el descenso del desempleo durante la crisis económica. Pero desde las reformas desreguladoras de Hartz de principios y mediados de los años 2000, la última década ha sido testigo de la emergencia de formas no convencionales de empleo y el crecimiento del sector de bajos salarios. Uno de los objetivos de las reformas Hartz era aumentar las oportunidades de empleo, entre otros en el sector de bajos salarios, especialmente en el sector servicios. Los trabajadores no estándar y entre ellos aquellos con contratos de duración determinada, los trabajadores de agencias temporales, los trabajadores fijos a tiempo parcial y mini- jobbers son los, comparativamente más afectados por los bajos salarios. In terms of basic labour market developments and outcomes Germany is faring comparatively well. Indeed, against the European trend, Germany saw employment rates increasing and unemployment decreasing during the economic crisis. But since the deregulatory Hartz reforms of the early and mid-2000s, the last decade saw non-standard forms of employment increasing substantially and the low wage sector surging. One of the aims of the Hartz reforms was to increase employment opportunities, among other in the low wage sector, especially in services. Nonstandard workers and among them fixed-term, temporary agency workers, regular part-time workers and mini-jobbers are disproportionally affected by low wages.

This article answers the question what makes workers happy?. It does so by combining insights from micro-economics, sociology and psychology. Basis is the standard utility function of a worker that includes income and hours of work and is elaborated with job characteristics. In this way it is possible to answer whether part-time workers are happier than full-time workers. The utility function is estimated on basis of the European Social Survey 2004 which contains all necessary information. The results show that workers optimize income and hours of work as predicted by micro-economics, but also that part-time workers are happier than full-time workers. Challenging work with a high level of autonomy makes the workers happy, work pressure makes workers unhappy.Higher educated workers are unhappier than lower educated workers, we find a negative effect of education, but this is compensated by the type of jobs these higher educated hold. JEL codes: J22, J28, J30, J81

To assess the influence of nonstandard employment for the labor market participation of different demographic groups, we provide detailed descriptions of the development of atypical employment in comparison to standard employment, unemployment, and economic inactivity between 1996 and 2011. In our analyses, we distinguish between fixedterm employment, solo self-employment, substantial part-time work (between 20 and 35 hours/week), and marginal part-time work (less than 20 hours/week). By simultaneously considering standard employment, atypical employment, and non-employment, we are able to assess the consequences of flexible labor markets for the economic integration of different population groups, such as women, the elderly, young people, or the low-skilled.

This article evaluates the effectiveness of subsidized temporary jobs as stepping stones to regular employment. We study a French program (Activité Réduite) that allows job seekers to work part-time while remaining registered with the unemployment agency. Under this program, insured individuals are allowed to concurrently receive part of their unemployment benefits and wage income. Using an administrative data set, we fit a multivariate duration model correcting for the endogenous nature of the time to treatment, the time in treatment, and the level of the subsidy. We find that subsidized temporary jobs have both a significant lock-in effect and a significant positive post-treatment impact on the hazard rate to employment. Since individuals facing a high implicit tax rate have incentives to self-select into better part-time jobs, we also find that a higher tax rate leads to a weaker lockin effect and a stronger post-treatment effect. Simulations suggest that the lock-in effect first dominates, but that the overall effect eventually becomes positive. They also point to ways of improving the effectiveness of the policy.

I address the causes of the gender wage gap with a new dynamic model of wage, hours, and job changes that permits me to decompose the gap into a portion due to gender differences in preferences for hours of work and in constraints. The dynamic model allows the differences in constraints to reflect possible gender differences in job arrival rates, job destruction rates, the mean and variance of the wage offer distribution, and the wage cost of part-time work. The model is estimated using the 1996 panel of the Survey of Income and Program Participation. I find that the preference for part-time work increases with marriage and number of children among women but not among men. These demographic factors explain a sizable fraction of the gender gap in employment, but they explain no more than 6 percent of the gender wage gap. Differences in constraints, mainly in the form of the mean offered wages and rates of job arrival and destruction, explain most of the gender wage gap. Policy simulation results suggest that, relative to reducing the wage cost of part-time work, providing additional employment protection to part-time jobs is more effective in reducing the gender wage gap.

Kapitel C befasst sich mit "Übergängen am Arbeitsmarkt und Qualität von Beschäftigung". Parallel zur günstigeren Arbeitsmarktentwicklung hat sich die Polarisierung des deutschen Arbeitsmarktes verschärft: Die Spreizung des Lohngefüges hat sich deutlich verstärkt, "atypische" Beschäftigungsverhältnisse wie Leiharbeit, befristete Beschäftigung, Teilzeit- und Mini-Jobs haben stark an Bedeutung gewonnen. Die Autorinnen und Autoren dieses Kapitels analysieren die Entwicklung atypischer Beschäftigungsverhältnisse in den vergangenen Jahren und gehen der Frage nach, inwieweit diese Erwerbsformen eine Brücke in stabile und existenzsichernde Beschäftigung bilden.

"Verknüpfte Arbeitgeber-Arbeitnehmer (Panel-) Datensätze gewinnen in der Analyse von Arbeitsmärkten zunehmend an Bedeutung. In Zusammenarbeit mit Statistik Austria haben wir den Aufbau eines verknüpften Arbeitgeber-Arbeitnehmer Panel-Datensatzes für Österreich über die Jahre 2002 bis 2005 initiiert. Das Ziel dieses Artikels ist es, diesen Datensatz einem größeren Publikum gegenüber bekannt zu machen. Zunächst stellen wir dessen Aufbau vor, wobei wir explizit sowohl auf die zugrunde liegenden Datenquellen als auch die Verknüpfungsprozedur eingehen. In einem weiteren Schritt präsentieren wir deskriptive Statistiken der im Datensatz enthaltenen Kernvariablen. Zu diesem Zweck betrachten wir drei unterschiedliche Analyseebenen: die Stichprobe als Ganzes, die Firmenebene sowie das einzelne Individuum." (Autorenreferat) "Matched employer-employee (panel) data sets are gaining increasing importance in the analysis of labour markets. In collaboration with Statistics Austria we recently initiated the set up of a matched employer-employee panel data set for Austria, which covers the years 2002-2005. The aim of the paper is to introduce the data set to a broader audience. We first present the set up of the panel data, indicating in more detail the data sources and matching procedure underlying the matched employer-employee data set for Austria. In a second step we show descriptive statistics of the main variables included in our data set. These various statistics encompass three levels of analysis: the aggregate level (i.e. the entire sample), firm level and individual (employee) level." (author's abstract)

Manager und Managerinnen arbeiten in Europa selten Teilzeit. Auch auf Führungsebene ist Teilzeit Frauendomäne. Teilzeitarbeit im Management wird stark von der Arbeitszeit- und Geschlechterkultur in den Ländern beeinflusst.