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Mainstream economic theory is replete with assumptions that feed into structural or systemic racism. It supports an economic system that severely disadvantages people at the lower end of the socio-economic spectrum, which in the U.S. includes a disproportionate number of Hispanics, indigenous people, and descendants of slaves ((would Afro-Americans be more appropriate?)). The paper discusses 15 such assumptions that are generally trivialized, including the crucial role information costs play in decision making. In turn, costly information implies that its acquisition by poor people requires a greater share of their income, making it more difficult for them to make well-informed decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on a study commissioned by the Savings Banks Association of New York, which analyzes the needs of mutual savings banks (MSBs) directly. The study focuses on New York, which is reportedly the most important single savings bank state in the United States. It is explained in the article that savings banks in New York held 57 percent of total MSB deposits in 1970. The article reports that this approach is better than using national data because MSBs are found primarily in the New England and Middle Atlantic states and are affected by the environment in these states. The study's conclusion was that MSBs are philanthropic institutions, which help the working poor invest their small incomes.

Small livestock and aquaculture production is thought to positively impact the livelihood security of poor rural households in low-income economies. A systematic narrative review conducted for evidence of this impact found only 29 studies that met the reviews inclusion and classification criteria. These studies indicate that raising small livestock and fish can improve income and nutrition, but results regarding women’s empowerment, disease, and the environment are mixed. More high-quality research is needed to understand the positive and negative impacts of production on human well-being. Future development programming should focus on implementing and evaluating multidimensional programmes and mixed farming systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

En el presente trabajo se estima la pobreza multidimensional en Nicaragua entre 2001 y 2009 con los datos de las últimas tres encuestas disponibles de medición del nivel de vida (2001, 2005 y 2009) y siguiendo, principalmente, la metodología propuesta por Alkire y Foster (2007 y 2011). Para ello, se utilizan diez dimensiones y tres sistemas de ponderaciones: el sistema de ponderaciones iguales y dos sistemas de ponderaciones desde los propios datos, uno a partir de las puntuaciones del primer componente principal y otro a partir de las frecuencias relativas de las privaciones dimensionales (ambos sistemas resultan novedosos para el caso de Nicaragua). En general, los resultados revelan que la incidencia, intensidad y severidad de la pobreza multidimensional en Nicaragua se redujeron entre 2001 y 2009, con un mayor descenso entre 2001 y 2005. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we apply a stationarity test with a flexible Fourier function proposed by Enders and Lee [ Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 74 (2012) 574-599] to test the convergence of China's urbanization. We find that our approximation has greater power to detect U-shaped and smooth breaks than the linear method if the urbanization is, in fact, a stationary non-linear process. It shows that the stationarity of the urbanization level varies across different regions where urbanization levels are convergent mainly in the middle- and low-income regions in China, while the high-income regions' urbanization is divergent. This, in turn, shows that most of the regions, especially high-income regions, have their own economic evolution rules due to the degree of openness in the economy and urbanization process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lower-income millennials make important financial decisions that may affect their future financial well-being. With limited resources, this population is at risk for acquiring too much debt or being unprepared for a financial emergency that can send them further into poverty and constrain their ability to leverage resources for future economic mobility. A financial capability approach, an intervention that combines financial education with financial inclusion through the use of a savings account, may correlate with millennials' healthy financial behaviors. This study used data from the 2012 National Financial Capability Study to examine the relationship between financial capability and the financial behaviors of lower-income millennials between the ages of 18 and 34 years (N = 2,578). Compared with those lower-income millennials who were financially excluded, those who were financially capable were also 171 percent more likely to afford an unexpected expense, 182 percent more likely to save for emergencies, and 34 percent less likely to carry too much debt, relating to their greater overall financial satisfaction. The findings of this study indicate that interventions that develop lower-income millennials' financial capability may be effective for promoting healthy financial behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. We examined the effects of market income inequality (income inequality before taxes and transfers) and income redistribution via taxes and transfers on inequality in longevity. Methods. We used life tables to compute Gini coefficients of longevity inequality for all individuals and for individuals who survived to at least 10 years of age. We regressed longevity inequality on market income inequality and income redistribution, and we controlled for potential confounders, in a cross-sectional time-series sample of up to 28 predominantly Western developed countries and up to 37 years (1974-2011). Results. Income inequality before taxes and transfers was positively associated with inequality in the number of years lived; income redistribution (the difference between market income inequality and income inequality after taxes and transfers were accounted for) was negatively associated with longevity inequality. Conclusions. To the extent that our estimated effects derived from observational data are causal, governments can reduce longevity inequality not only via public health policies, but also via their influence on market income inequality and the redistribution of incomes from the relatively rich to the relatively poor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective This article examines whether disability is a correlate of poverty when poverty is measured using (1) the official poverty measure; (2) the supplemental poverty measure (SPM); and (3) two multidimensional poverty measures created by the authors. Methods Data from the Current Population Survey are used to explore the relationship between poverty and disability for each measure. Differences across disability status were tested for statistical significance. Results Disability is associated with poverty, irrespective of the poverty measure under use. The gap in poverty rates between persons with and without disabilities is smaller when using the SPM as compared to the official poverty measure. The gap in poverty rates between persons with and without disabilities is highest when using multidimensional poverty measures. Conclusion Working-age persons with disabilities are more likely to be poor whatever the measure under use. They are a disadvantaged group in the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Looking from the existing research, improving the social capital of the poverty population is an effective way to promote the population quality and the income growth of the poor people. Based on the existing research, with the rural poor households in Sichuan Liangshan as the research object, this article used factor analysis to measure social capital stock, and then analyzed the influence of social capital on the income of the poor peasant households in that region, through he reconstructed production function. The results show that the poor households' social capital has a significant impact on their income level, and the effect degree varies in different income levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that income received via redistributive transfers, unlike labor income, requires no direct sacrifice of leisure; this makes it attractive to many voters even if it leaves them poorer. This point is made within the classic model wherein heterogeneous voters evaluate an income-redistribution program that finances a lump-sum transfer to all via a distorting income tax. The political-equilibrium policy under majority rule is the tax most preferred, utility-wise, by the median voter. Ironically, this voter, and many poorer voters, may support a redistribution policy that leaves them poorer in income terms but with higher utility. (JEL H2, E6, D72 ) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Data from a state-wide survey of California middle and high school students (N=20,203) were used to assess whether county income inequality and poverty rates were associated with adolescent smoking. Greater county income inequality, but not poverty rates, was associated with higher established smoking risk (p=0.0019). The association was stronger in males than females, whites than other ethnic groups, and urban than rural settings. Neither county income inequality nor poverty rates were associated with experimental smoking. The findings suggest that it may be important to consider and address economic inequality in the prevention and control of adolescent tobacco use. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The potential impacts of genetically modified (GM) crops on income, poverty and nutrition in developing countries continue to be the subject of public controversy. Here, a review of the evidence is given. As an example of a first-generation GM technology, the effects of insect-resistant Bt cotton are analysed. Bt cotton has already been adopted by millions of small-scale farmers, in India, China, and South Africa among others. On average, farmers benefit from insecticide savings, higher effective yields and sizeable income gains. Insights from India suggest that Bt cotton is employment generating and poverty reducing. As an example of a second-generation technology, the likely impacts of beta-carotene-rich Golden Rice are analysed from an ex ante perspective. Vitamin A deficiency is a serious nutritional problem, causing multiple adverse health outcomes. Simulations for India show that Golden Rice could reduce related health problems significantly, preventing up to 40,000 child deaths every year. These examples clearly demonstrate that GM crops can contribute to poverty reduction and food security in developing countries. To realise such social benefits on a larger scale requires more public support for research targeted to the poor, as well as more efficient regulatory and technology delivery systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of pro-poor growth focuses on the interrelation between economic growth, inequality, and poverty. According to an absolute definition, growth is pro-poor if the absolute income gain of the poor is larger than those on average. In contrast, a relative definition requires that the growth rate of income is higher among the poor than the nonpoor. The pro-poor literature has often considered the concept of pro-poor growth within a country by using household data in one country, or a large cross section of countries and time periods. This paper measures pro-poor growth across countries. We show how the concept of pro-poor growth in income per capita can be applied easily to a set of economies in the course of growth. This approach enables us to highlight the link to income convergence studies. The empirical investigations consider the experience of five Balkan countries during the period 1989-2005. The results show that many episodes of growth are not pro-poor because poverty and inequality worsen between Balkan countries. Although economic reforms seem to have a positive effect on well-being in Balkan countries, the overall effect on growth has been small for most countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose the use of an alternative methodology to track low incomes based on Atkinson's “equally distributed equivalent income” functions or “general means” and present a new characterization to justify their application. To evaluate the effects of growth on lower incomes, growth rates are compared for two income standards: the ordinary mean and a low-income-sensitive general mean. The question is: How closely related are these two variables? After estimating the growth elasticity, we find that it is not significantly different from zero. Thus, it cannot be concluded that poorer incomes grow proportionately to increases in the average income. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. We sought to update income-specific secular trends in obesity in Brazil to assess the hypothesis that the disease burden is shifting toward the poor. Methods. We compared overall and income-specific obesity prevalence rates estimated for Brazilian men and women from national surveys conducted in 1975, 1989, and 2003. We calculated age-adjusted prevalence ratios to assess time trends. Results. In the first 14-year period examined (1975-1989), obesity rates among men and women increased by 92% and 63%, respectively, and increases were relatively higher among individuals in lower income groups. In the second 14-year period (1989-2003), there were further increases in obesity among men, and again increases were larger among the poor. In this second period, the obesity rate remained virtually stable in the overall female population, but it increased by 26% among women in the 2 lower income quintiles and decreased by 10% among women in the 3 higher income quintiles. Conclusions. The burden of obesity is shifting toward the poor and can no longer be considered a disease of the socioeconomic elite. Policymakers need to design policy and programs that reach all members of society, but especially the poor. (Am J Public Health. 2007;97:1808-1812. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2006.099630) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose an allocation mechanism for publicly providing a private good such that the final allocation is independent of income yet increasing in strength of preference or need. The ‘pay or wait’ mechanism consists of offering the good for sale at two outlets. The ‘queuing’ outlet charges a low money price, but high waiting time per unit. The ‘pricing’ outlet charges a relatively high money price with rapid service. High wage individuals will opt for the pricing outlet, and low wage individuals the queuing outlet. If the policy maker stocks the outlets in proportion to the distribution of wage earners in the population, consumers of both wages will purchase the same amount on average, while those who value the good more relative to other goods will receive more of it. These outcomes are at risk if the good can be resold, but may be preserved if the policy maker can create transactions costs associated with resale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fleurbaey et al. (2003) develop a bounded dominance test to make robust welfare comparisons, which is intermediate between Ebert's (1999) cardinal dominance criterion—generalized Lorenz dominance applied to household incomes, divided and weighted by an equivalence scale—and Bourguignon's (1989) ordinal dominance criterion. In this paper, we develop a more complete, but less robust bounded index test, which is intermediate between Ebert's (1997) cardinal index test—an index applied to household incomes, divided and weighted by the equivalence scale—and a (new) sequential index test—an index applied to household incomes of the most needy only, the most and second most needy only, and so on. We illustrate the power of our test to detect welfare changes in Russia using data of the RLMS-surveys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One would expect that family income is an important positive factor in children's school attainment. However, evidence is often tainted by the lack of control for parental ability, since at least a portion of ability is transferred genetically to children. This paper uses a sample of adopted children and offers genetically unbiased estimates. We further correct for biases arising from unobserved parenting qualities and from parents’ differentiation between their own birth and adopted children. Family income still has a significant effect. It implies that high ability children in low income families face binding credit constraints that society may wish to relieve. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low-income families face an enormous burden to achieve economic security since the deterioration of a guaranteed safety net. Health insurance coverage is uneven, affordable childcare falls short of demand, and wage earnings insufficiently support family needs. This analysis focuses on recent trends in family formation, the impact of policy changes on families of color and of immigrant status, and explores the daily challenges and coping strategies low-income families use to survive despite insufficient resources. Four key findings emerge from this body of knowledge: (1) Low-income families experience severe hardships when relying on cash assistance, work, or a combination of both; (2) Low-income families are resilient and resourceful; (3) Low-income families face significant barriers to using public and private services along with increasing earnings from work; and (4) The quality of life for families of color and immigrant families is directly affected by employment and service sector practices. Future research needs to focus on identifying tile critical unmet needs of low-income families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the evolution of the income share of the poorest 20 per cent of the population, and of the average income level of this group, in a cross-country sample using data from 1965 to 1990. The change in the income share of the poor is negatively correlated with its 1965 level and with 1965 per capita GDP, implying the greatest improvements in poor countries with the most unequal initial income distribution, but is not correlated with economic growth. The average incomes of the poor grow faster in countries with higher growth rates. Nous analysons l'évolution de la part de revenu des 20% les plus pauvres de la population, et du niveau de revenu moyen de ce groupe, à partir d'un échantillon de plusieurs pays entre 1965 et 1990. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One question development economists are especially interested in, but so far left unanswered, is: how would, the societal income distribution be affected by introducing a family-planning program to reduce the reproduction rate of the poor, which is usually high in developing countries? The purpose of this paper is to search for analytical answers to this question. We are able to make definite comparisons about some class of inequality measures of the steady-state societal income distributions, and these comparisons provide strong theoretical support in favor of the above-mentioned family-planning program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract--We examine the effects of child care subsidies on the labor supply decisions of low-income mothers and on the quality of care their children receive using newly gathered data on two programs that subsidize the child care expenditures of families in Kentucky. We find that single mothers who receive child care subsidies are more likely to be employed and are generally more satisfied with the care their children receive, but subsidies have little effect on hours worked. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A number of lessons emerge for policy makers concerned with designing target group oriented food programs. First, disaggregation by income class is essential because the poor respond very differently to changes in prices and total expenditure. It is these differences in response which suggest that it may be possible to target interventions toward poor households. Second, substitution effects are strong and cannot be ignored in formulating policy. In Bangladesh, there are many instances where subsidization of foods would result in absolute declines in nutrient intake because of cross-price effects. A related point is that although households obviously benefit nutritionally from substituting low cost sources of nutrients for high cost sources, cost per unit of nutrient is a poor and often misleading guide in identifying candidates for subsidization. For example, subsidization of pulses, the lowest cost source of protein in Bangladesh (along with wheat), would result in a net decline in protein consumption by poor households. Third, supplemental income may not be as effective at augmenting nutrient intake as programs which induce substitution for foods which are low cost sources of nutrients. Nutrient elasticities with respect to total food expenditure were found to be surprisingly small for low income households. Knowledge of the complete matrix of nutrient price elasticities would be extremely useful in designing nutrition-oriented food policy. Nutrient price elasticities summarize the net effect of food price changes on net nutrient intake. Examination of the matrix of nutrient price elasticities estimated for rural Bangladesh reveals wheat flour as an ideal candidate if it were decided to use subsidies to achieve nutritional objectives.

This paper uses microdata from the 1986 Statistics Canada Family Expenditure Survey to demonstrate that inequality-sensitive poverty measures such as the Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (1984) index are as sensitive to the equivalence scale embodied in the poverty line as the more frequently used head count and poverty gap measures. Indices of the Foster-Greer-Thorbecke variety are useful, however, for revealing demographic subgroups experiencing extreme deprivation, information not provided by the more standard poverty measures. The paper also demonstrates that our understanding of the relative poverty experiences of important demographic subgroups such as children and the elderly can be influenced by our choice of equivalence scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a method of measuring chronic and transitory poverty using an axiomatically sound, additively decomposable index of aggregate poverty. Our approach is contrasted with alternative methods of measuring poverty persistence. We use our method to measure chronic and transitory poverty in the United States during the 1980s and late 1970s and find that chronic poverty is a more serious problem than previously thought. Between the late 1970s and mid 1980s poverty not only increased, it became more chronic and less transitory in nature. This is true for the population as a whole and for some, but not alt, of the subpopulations we considered. The latter were defined according to race, type of social unit, and educational qualifications of the head of the social unit. All empirical analyses are based on data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a new approach to defining the poverty line is proposed in which family heads are asked what they consider a minimal income level for their own family. It was found that the respondents appeared to specify higher amounts, the greater their actual income and family size, and that the relationship was loglinear. For each family size there is an income level at which a respondent's stated minimum income is equal to his actual income. This level is taken as a definition of the poverty line, The poverty line thus defined varies with family size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

If the minimal nonpoor level of consumption requires both money and household production, then the official poverty standards do not correctly measure household needs. Any income-support program that corrects for money differences but not for time differences across households will discriminate against households with only one adult. Furthermore, such programs will PrOvide financial incentives for households to form in certain ways. This paper sets up a two-dimensional poverty definition and then shows how this standard can be used to define voluntary versus involuntaw poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents abstracts of poverty, economic growth, income and welfare. They include Non-Market Components of National Income," "Predicting Use of Public Assistance: An Empirical Study," "Welfare Options and Welfare Politics," "The Nixon Stance on Welfare," "The Systems Approach to Defining Welfare Programs."

Helping to provide decent housing for low income households is a worldwide challenge to national governments, especially in countries where most citizens are adequately fed. However, it would be euphemistic to use the term strategies to denote public policies concerning the housing situation in most countries, particularly those dominated by free markets. Their governments simply do not have well reasoned, realistic, long range policies for coping with housing needs. Nevertheless, for purposes of analysis, it is useful to view the public efforts to improve the housing of low-income households in each nation as resulting from at least an implicit strategy. Many poorer nations could also benefit from similarly accepting lower-than-optimal housing quality standards because they produce better results than unrealistically seeking higher standards. Some governments concentrate upon production of a small number of moderate quality subsidized units for the poor, while thousands more zero standard units are built in completely unregulated fashion. The net result would be superior if more public attention were focused upon trying to achieve even extremely low level standards regarding all housing, including shacks. For example, public funds might provide minimum-sized lots for shacks in selected locations, with streets, water and electricity available. This could help control the location of zero standard development so as to conform to urban planning, while al- lowing room on each lot for future upgrading and immediately providing minimal utilities for all residents.