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1. Mobilizing Resources for Education and Improving Spending Effectiveness: Establishing Realistic Benchmarks Based on Past Trends. Policy Research Working Paper 8773

Author

World Bank, Al-Samarrai, Samer, Cerdan-Infantes, Pedro, and Lehe, Jonathan

Abstract

This paper looks at how countries have mobilized additional resources for education and assesses their impact on access and learning outcomes, using the World Bank's new Learning-Adjusted Years of Schooling measure. The paper shows that global spending on education has risen significantly over the past two decades, although spending as a share of gross domestic product has remained relatively unchanged, at about 4.5 percent. However, global trends mask large differences across regions and country income groups. For example, low-income countries recorded the largest increases in terms of the share of GDP spent on education, but the absolute amount they devoted to education remained low compared to other countries. Economic growth has been the main driver of increases in public education spending. Yet, countries that achieved the largest and most rapid spending increases did this through a combination of increases in overall government revenues, a greater prioritization of education in the government budget as well as healthy economic growth. Increases in public education spending did not generally result in major improvements in average education outcomes. Using the available data, the paper shows that a doubling of government spending per child led to an increase in learning-adjusted years of schooling of only half a year. Preliminary findings also show that countries with lower efficiency and spending are expected to get the most from increases in spending in improved education outcomes. The paper concludes by outlining an approach that allows countries to assess their potential for increasing education funding and the expected effects on their education outcomes, based on benchmarks drawing from the data of comparable countries. It also underscores the urgent need to improve data on public education spending and education outcomes, to extend this analysis to cover a wider set of countries and increase the robustness of country-level benchmarks. [This paper is a product of the Education Global Practice.]

Published
2019

2. A Third Wave of International Student Mobility: Global Competitiveness and American Higher Education. Research & Occasional Paper Series: CSHE.8.18

Author

University of California, Berkeley. Center for Studies in Higher Education and Choudaha, Rahul

Abstract

International students are critical to the competitiveness of American higher education in terms of financial, intercultural, and educational contributions. However, recent data indicates that the U.S institutions enrolled 31,520 fewer international students in Fall 2017 as compared to Fall 2016. At average tuition and fees of US$ 25,000, higher education institutions are likely to lose potential revenue of US$ 788 million for the first year of studies alone. This paper examines the shifting landscape of international enrollment from the lens of three overlapping Waves spread over seven years and takes a deeper dive into implications for American universities. Wave I was shaped by the terrorist attacks in September 2001 and resulted in slower overall growth in international student enrollment of 11% between 1999 and 2006. Wave II has its origins in the global financial crisis which prompted universities to search for self-funded students and experienced overall robust growth of 44 percent in international student enrollment between 2006 and 2013. Finally, Wave III is shaped by the new political order and intensified competition from English-taught programs in Europe and Asia which will slow down the pace of projected growth in international enrollment to 18 percent between 2013 and 2020. In this current Wave of intensified global competition, overall international student enrollment is likely to flatten or decline for most universities. While the reputation and quality of American higher education is admired and emulated around the world, resting on its past laurels will not be sufficient for attracting international students in the Third Wave. This means that universities must get proactive and strategic in reaching, engaging and supporting international students throughout their educational lifecycle. Demand for studying abroad among international students remains robust, however, increasing competition and expectations for value for money will requires proactive and concerted efforts to maintain the global competitiveness of American higher education.

Published
2018

3. Why Do Countries Participate in International Large-Scale Assessments? The Case of PISA. Policy Research Working Paper 7447

Author

World Bank and Lockheed, Marlaine E.

Abstract

The number of countries that regularly participate in international large-scale assessments has increased sharply over the past 15 years, with the share of countries participating in the Programme for International Student Assessment growing from one-fifth of countries in 2000 to over one-third of countries in 2015. What accounts for this increase? This paper explores the evidence for three broad explanations: globalization of assessments, increasing technical capacity for conducting assessments, and increased demand for the microeconomic and macroeconomic data from these assessments. Data were compiled from more than 200 countries for this analysis, for six time periods between 2000 and 2015, yielding more than 1,200 observations. The data cover each country's participation in each of six cycles of PISA as it relates to the country's level of economic development, region, prior experience with assessment, and OECD membership. The results indicate that the odds of participation in PISA are markedly higher for OECD member countries, countries in the Europe and Central Asia region, high- and upper-middle-income countries, and countries with previous national and international assessment experience; the paper also finds that regional assessment experience is unrelated to PISA participation.

Published
2015

4. Higher Education: What Role Can the Commonwealth Play? Background Paper for Discussion at the 19th Conference of Commonwealth Education Ministers

Author

Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU) (United Kingdom) and Kirkland, John

Abstract

Higher education is increasingly recognised as being critical to social and economic prosperity. It is also a policy area where the Commonwealth could significantly increase its impact. This could be achieved without major cost, by working through activities already in place, and persuading member governments to make stronger use of these brands and mechanisms. This paper focuses on four key areas selected by the the 19th Conference of Commonwealth Education Ministers (19CCEM) Steering Committee: (1) Costs and access; (2) Links with employment; (3) Securing the next generation of academics; and (4) Student and staff mobility. These were chosen because of their importance, relevance to conference themes, and synergy with existing Commonwealth-related initiatives. In each case, the brief summary of issues is intended to stimulate debate on whether, and how, the Commonwealth could play a greater role. [This paper was prepared for the Conference of Commonwealth Education Ministers (19CCEM) (19th, Bahamas, Jun 22-26, 2015).]

Published
2015

5. National Strategies for Coping with Unemployment: An International Perspective. Occasional Paper No. 69.

Author

Ohio State Univ., Columbus. National Center for Research in Vocational Education. and Emmerij, Louis

Abstract

This paper considers the economics of employment and education in industralized countries, particularly European countries. The paper covers six main topics. The first part deals with the present European employment situation, using figures mainly from Holland; the second part is an economic outlook for the 1980s; in the third, the employment and economic situations are combined, and the resulting employment prospects are considered. Discussed in part 4 are economic policies to cope with unemployment. Labor market policies are the subject of the fifth part, while the last section looks at social and cultural policies and what education can do within an overall packet to cope with the unemployment problem. A question-and-answer section follows. The paper maintains that actual unemployment is worse than the figures would indicate because of the rate of disability retirement; suggestions are made for policies of re-education, economic restructuring, and stimulation of international demand. (KC)

Published
1981

6. EDUCATIONAL PLANNING. PAPERS OF THE INVITATIONAL CONFERENCE (TORONTO, CANADA, MARCH 20-22, 1967).

Author

Ontario Dept. of Education, Toronto., Ontario Inst. for Studies in Education, Toronto., and WATSON, CICELY

Abstract

THIS BOOK COMPRISES THE MAJOR PAPERS DELIVERED AT A CONFERENCE ON MARCH 20-22, 1967, SPONSORED BY THE POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL, AN ADVISORY UNIT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION IN ONTARIO. THE CONFERENCE WAS ATTENDED BY REPRESENTATIVE PERSONS FROM DEPARTMENTS OF GOVERNMENT, UNIVERSITIES, AND MAJOR SCHOOL SYSTEMS ACROSS CANADA. THE CONFERENCE HAD TWO OBJECTIVES--(1) TO GATHER PLANNERS AND STUDENTS OF PLANNING TO DISCUSS THE STATE OF THE ART, ITS TECHNICAL PROBLEMS, AND ITS FUTURE, AND (2) TO EXPLAIN TO CANADIAN EDUCATORS WHAT IS MEANT BY "PLANNING." FOUR OF THE PAPERS DEALT WITH NATIONAL OR INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE AND EMPHASIZED ONE PARTICULAR ASPECT OF PLANNING EXPERIENCE--THE ORGANIZATIONAL PROBLEMS, THE COMPLICATIONS OF A FEDERAL SYSTEM, OR THE DATA PROBLEMS. FOUR PAPERS WERE TECHNICAL, DEALING WITH ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF PLANNING AND WITH SOCIAL GOALS. SCHEMES FOR TRAINING PLANNERS WERE THE SUBJECT OF TWO PAPERS. (HW)

Published
1967

7. Drivers of the Green Paradox in Europe: An empirical application.

Author

Tavares AR and Robaina M

Subjects
Public Policy, Climate Change, Europe, Carbon Dioxide analysis, Renewable Energy, Economic Development
Abstract

The green paradox describes an undesirable and socially inefficient phenomenon caused by the expansionary reactions of the supply as a response to the various mechanisms that combat climate change. This article seeks to understand and aggregate the different drivers of this phenomenon portrayed in the literature, as well the empirical evidence associated and the proposed solutions. For this purpose, compilation and systematization of the various scientific contributions up to date in this context have been elaborated and the driver's effective impact on the European scenario was evaluated, using a balanced panel for 28 countries in Europe over 1996-2018 and the generalized method of moments (GMM) econometric procedure. Proxies for all provocateurs identified in the state of the art were incorporated in this study: (i) environmental taxes, (ii) green support, (iii) uncertain property rights, (iv) emissions limit (cap), and (v) temporal lag. The dependent variables used are (1) the ratio between the annual production/extraction of oil and the consumption of primary energy and (2) the carbon dioxide (CO2) intensity. We have obtained evidences that the hiatus in the implementation of the European emission cap mechanism has generated a strong green paradox. Moreover, a robust reflection regarding the economic and environmental adequacy of green supports should be considered due to its questionable net benefits. Lastly, we offer some recommendations of public environmental policies that escape the paradoxical phenomenon, through the enunciation of the conditionalities of these provocateurs., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Published
2023
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8. Revisiting the impact of renewable energy consumption on economic growth: sectoral evidence from the USA.

Author

Tugcu CT and Menegaki AN

Subjects
Renewable Energy, Fossil Fuels, Europe, Economic Development, Carbon Dioxide analysis
Abstract

The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between sectoral renewable energy consumption and economic growth in the US economy for the period 1950-2020 by using the Fourier component augmented unit root, cointegration, and causality analyses for the transportation, industrial, residential, electric power, and commercial sectors. Our results reveal in the long run that renewable energy will Granger cause growth through the new jobs it will create, the restructuring of the economy which is a prerequisite for replacing fossil energy with renewable energy. On the other hand, causal relationships are less stable and methodology and sector specific in the short run. Accordingly, the electric power and industrial sectors experience conservation patterns in terms of renewable energy consumption, while the growth hypothesis is confirmed for the commercial sector. Different implications are generated for each sector, which are now more important than ever given the current energy crisis in Europe and the urgent need to reduce dependence on fossil fuels., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Published
2023
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9. The impact of natural resources and gross capital formation on economic growth in the context of globalization: evidence from developing countries on the continent of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America.

Author

Aslan A and Altinoz B

Subjects
Africa, Asia, Carbon Dioxide analysis, Europe, Internationality, Natural Resources, Developing Countries, Economic Development
Abstract

The aim of this paper is to investigate the nexus between natural resources, gross capital formation, globalization, and economic growth in the developing countries from European, Asian, African, and American continents. It adopted the panel vector autoregression (PVAR) approach to test this relationship for the period from 1980 to 2018. Results suggest that natural resources and globalization have a positive impact on economic growth in European, Asian, and American countries, while capital formation negatively affects growth. In African countries, the effect of globalization and gross capital formation is positive, but natural resources have a negative impact on GDP. Evidence from all continents illustrate that there is bidirectional causality between globalization and economic growth. Also, there is bidirectional causality detected between capital formation and growth in Europe and Asia and between natural resources and growth in Asia and America, while there is unidirectional causality from GDP to natural resources in Europe, from capital formation to GDP in Africa and America, from GDP to natural resources in Europe, and from natural resources to GDP in America. Based on these results, it can be said that new growth models can no longer be independent of natural resource rents and globalization., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE part of Springer Nature.)

Published
2021
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10. Do technological innovations promote green growth in the European Union?

Author

Nosheen M, Iqbal J, and Abbasi MA

Subjects
Carbon Dioxide analysis, Cross-Sectional Studies, Europe, European Union, Humans, Renewable Energy, Economic Development, Inventions
Abstract

The present study aims to investigate the impact of climate change technologies on green growth for a panel of overall European economies, Eastern, and Western European economies over 2000 to 2017. The study estimates the STIRPAT (stochastic impacts by regression on population, affluence, and technology) and IPAT (human impact, population, affluence, and technology) models with a particulate focus to address the issue of cross-sectional dependence and cross-sectional heterogeneity in the model by using Westerlund cointegration approach and fully modified ordinary least square (FMOLS) approach. After confirming the cointegration relationship, the findings indicate that in the case of IPAT model, energy-related climate change technology contributes towards green growth, while in case of STRIPAT model, environment-related budget tends to have favorable impact on green growth. However, other variables, such as transport and production-related climate change technologies along with energy consumption, tend to have negative impact on green growth. The findings are almost robust concerning Eastern and Western Europe. The findings indicate that renewable energy is pro-growth and thus the authorities concerned need to promote and encourage the use of renewable energy. In this regard, the role of public-private-partnership is important as well as policymakers need to allocate environment-related specific budget and extend exemption in taxes on the use of environment-friendly technologies. Renewable energy programs ensure an improved return on green growth, although costly to implement. Attention needs to be focused on technologies related to wind power, solar electricity, biogas for electricity and heat generation, and biofuels for transport from low initial levels. Thus, policymakers should focus on the positive impact of environmental regulations. Polluting industries should be taxed to adopt clean technologies and clean industries should be supported with tax exemption as an incentive. Moreover, the research and development (R&D) budget should be increased.

Published
2021
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