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International students are critical to the competitiveness of American higher education in terms of financial, intercultural, and educational contributions. However, recent data indicates that the U.S institutions enrolled 31,520 fewer international students in Fall 2017 as compared to Fall 2016. At average tuition and fees of US$ 25,000, higher education institutions are likely to lose potential revenue of US$ 788 million for the first year of studies alone. This paper examines the shifting landscape of international enrollment from the lens of three overlapping Waves spread over seven years and takes a deeper dive into implications for American universities. Wave I was shaped by the terrorist attacks in September 2001 and resulted in slower overall growth in international student enrollment of 11% between 1999 and 2006. Wave II has its origins in the global financial crisis which prompted universities to search for self-funded students and experienced overall robust growth of 44 percent in international student enrollment between 2006 and 2013. Finally, Wave III is shaped by the new political order and intensified competition from English-taught programs in Europe and Asia which will slow down the pace of projected growth in international enrollment to 18 percent between 2013 and 2020. In this current Wave of intensified global competition, overall international student enrollment is likely to flatten or decline for most universities. While the reputation and quality of American higher education is admired and emulated around the world, resting on its past laurels will not be sufficient for attracting international students in the Third Wave. This means that universities must get proactive and strategic in reaching, engaging and supporting international students throughout their educational lifecycle. Demand for studying abroad among international students remains robust, however, increasing competition and expectations for value for money will requires proactive and concerted efforts to maintain the global competitiveness of American higher education.

In this paper the authors identified the size of America's home market as a crucial component of its historical comparative advantage. The authors showed that over the last four decades nearly 60 percent of per capita U.S. growth has been dependent upon growth in the domestic consumption. Thus, a comprehensive demand side strategy also must target the domestic consumers U.S. businesses know best. On the supply side, they asked themselves what education and skills matter for individual and national economic success in the global economy? The authors' research demonstrated that education matters for growth and college matters the most. Boosting college completion rates by just 10 percent would inject $125 billion into the economy over the long run. Education credentials often serve as a signaling devise that employers use to gauge what potential hires might know and be able to do on the job. Employers are really interested in the knowledge, skills and abilities people bring to the workplace, not just their education credentials. The authors examined a new data set to test this hypothesis and found preliminary evidence to support it. The authors showed that the greater the level of skill required of occupations, the higher the education levels of job incumbents. Secondly, they found that the greater the level of skill required of occupations, the greater the average earnings for workers in those occupations, after holding constant the level of education. Consequently, not only is there a clear payoff to education, there also is an independent payoff to higher skills. And that appears true not only for competencies like innovation, critical thinking, and complex problem solving, but also for basic skills and social skills that are important in interacting with colleagues and customers. They also found that these competencies were useful in estimating which jobs are most vulnerable to being offshored overseas. In conclusion, they recognize that globalization is neither automatically beneficial nor universally destructive. Neither their analysis nor history offer assurances, though their work does suggest some ways forward. Therefore, they should identify strategies that will enable America to seize opportunities presented by globalization while minimizing its negative effects on communities, workers, and their families. Average Earnings by Education of Workers and the Competency Level Occupations Require are appended. (Contains 14 figures, 8 tables and 57 endnotes.) [This paper was written with Zamira Simkins.]

In his recent bestseller The World Is Flat, Thomas Friedman argues that countries like the United States can no longer compete in the global economy on the basis of making and selling commodities. Their competitive edge increasingly comes from how well they produce products, services, and technologies that are new . . . special . . . non-standard--and thus not easily produced across the globe by competitors. In this paper, we look at the educational implications of this crisis--implications that are both profound and alarming. We argue that young people in the United States today are being prepared for "commodity jobs" in a world that will, very soon, only reward people who can do innovative work and punish those who can't. The problem is being exacerbated by a new equity gap, in which some students have access at home to the technologies they need to prepare for life in a digital world, but many do not--a problem made worse by current educational policies that focus on giving students standardized skills for standardized tests rather than preparation for creative thinking and innovative work. We argue that the time to tinker with schools, as we have done for decades, is over, and that the change we need is neither liberal nor conservative. We make the case here that the same technologies that are creating this crisis provide a potential solution, and we propose the concept of epistemic games as one way to solve this looming crisis of learning. (Contains 1 figure.)

This article introduces original annual average years of schooling measures for each state from 1840 to 2000. The paper also combines original data on real state per-worker output with existing data to provide a more comprehensive series of real state output per worker from 1840 to 2000. These data show that the New England, Middle Atlantic, Pacific, East North Central, and West North Central regions have been educational leaders during the entire time period. In contrast, the South Atlantic, East South Central, and West South Central regions have been educational laggards. The Mountain region behaves differently than either of the aforementioned groups. Using their estimates of average years of schooling and average years of experience in the labor force, the authors estimate aggregate Mincerian earnings regressions. Their estimates indicate that a year of schooling increased output by between 8 percent and 12 percent, with a point estimate close to 10 percent. These estimates are in line with the body of evidence from the labor literature. (Supplemental information is provided in 4 appendices. Contains 36 footnotes, 15 tables and unnumbered figures.)

The contribution of higher education institutions to regional development is a theme that has attracted growing attention in recent years. Knowledge institutions are increasingly expected not only to conduct education and research, but also to play an active role in the economic, social and cultural development of their regions. The extent to which higher education institutions are able to play this role depends on a number of circumstances: the characteristics of the institutions, the regions in which they are located and the policy frameworks are all significant. At the same time, there are signs of more fundamental conceptual and strategic confusion. The discussions in this domain are frequently characterised by slogans and popular metaphors. This literature review was prepared to support the OECD project entitled 'Supporting the Contribution of Higher Education Institutions to Regional Development', which was conducted by the OECD Programme on Institutional Management in Higher Education (IMHE) in collaboration with the Directorate of Public Governance and Territorial Development. Drawing mainly from a selection of European and North American publications, the report takes an overall view on the development of higher education institutions in the regional context. It focuses on the evolution and discourses of higher education and research, the regional aspects of higher education policies, the various functions and roles that the institutions play, measures taken to link the universities with their regional partners, and the conditions which favour or hamper stronger regional engagement. (A bibliography is included. Contains 9 figures.)

This paper reviews recent measurement work on User-Created Content (UCC) undertaken in OECD countries. It shows that UCC is emerging as a significant area of economic and social activity worthy of consideration for official measurement and discusses the implications for the OECD Model Survey on ICT Access and Use by Households and Individuals. (Study summary and questionnaires are annexed. Contains 10 footnotes, 6 figures and 1 table.)

This conference, jointly organised by OECD's Department for Science, Technology and Industry and the Italian Ministry for Innovation and Technology, was attended by approximately 350 representatives from industry, academia and government. Rapporteurs presented summaries in terms of issues and areas where there was agreement and/or convergence among presentations and participant interventions and areas where there was disagreement and/or divergence. Points of agreement include: (1) Today's participatory culture is of users rather than consumers with increased generational differences in usage; (2) Goal of business-model neutrality; and (3) There is a high speed of change in the sector, led by the availability of broad-band enabling digital content provision with a significant decline of (access) prices. Points of divergence include: (1) Balance of intellectual property rights (IPR); (2) Role of governments versus markets; (3) Digital Rights Management (DRM); and (4) Policy challenges and need for international harmonisation. (Contains 2 footnotes, 8 figures, 1 box and 1 table.)

Human capital--the productive capacity that is embedded in people--is one of the most important contributors to the growth in nations' output and standard of living. Globalisation and technological change have increased the importance of human capital in recent years, to the point that there are now only two options to sustain high profits and high wages in developed nations: escalating the skill levels of individuals or developing superior capacity for managing those skills and "human capital" more broadly. Employers have responded to these new phenomena by increasing wages for employees with more skills and by increasing their use of downsizing and other methods (such as "offshoring") intended to reduce labour costs. There is little evidence, however, that such efforts by employers have improved profits, productivity, or stock price performance. Employer-provided training for employees represents one method of improving the skill level of a nation's workforce. Although long-standing economic theory suggests that existing incentives for employers and employees should naturally yield the delivery of an optimal level of training, there is new awareness of a variety of market failures that may be causing a sub-optimal level of training, despite evidence that points to a positive relationship between employer-provided training and firm outcomes (productivity, profitability, employee retention, customer retention, stock performance). (Contains 3 figures, 3 tables, 1 box and 35 footnotes.)

Vocational Education can play a key role in revitalizing the American economy particularly through research and development in four areas: economic development and productivity, equity and access, youth employment, and energy. It can enhance productivity by identifying innovative vocational education programs successful in enhancing community and economic development, developing entrepreneurship training, aiding in vocational agriculture teacher preparation, developing curricula that addresses community economic development needs, and emphasizing new technologies and leadership development opportunities. Research and demonstration projects can aid in expanding vocational educational opportunities for women, minorities, and handicapped persons. Vocational education can play a key part in reducing youth unemployment by providing in-school and out-of-school programs for disadvantaged youth. It has already begun to respond to emerging industries and technologies needed for the energy crisis. The National Center for Research in Vocational Education can assist in this endeavor by improving national dissemination and utilization of research and development products focusing on the four priorities mentioned above, examining and describing critical issues confronting vocational education, assisting in strengthening the nationwide vocational education research and development system, and improving articulation among education, business, industry, labor, and economic development agencies. (MN)

Globalization is an evolving concept characterized by economic, technological, social, and political dimensions. Vocational education and training (VET) practitioners and the VET system must make more conscious efforts to lead thinking about the social dimension of globalization. The mission of Australian VET today is largely couched in economic terms--to ensure a skilled work force capable of helping the country's industries become globally competitive. In Australia, much of the debate about globalization has focused on economics and technology, and the social and political dimensions of globalization have largely been side-stepped. The Australian education and training system has worked very hard to ensure that technology is pressed to the service of VET rather than falling for the trap of technological determinism. The challenge is not so much to invest in the technologies but to more quickly and effectively apply the technologies for the purposes of vocational learning and for using them to transact VET business. The following issues related to the social dimensions of globalization remain vitally important to the development and delivery of VET: access; Australian cultural identity; and community. Australia's VET practitioners and leaders must support a community-building purpose for VET and work to enhance the stock of social capital in their communities. (MN)

This paper, one of a series from the Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education's project "Higher Education and the Economy of the West," summarizes and analyzes economic development and higher education master plans in 16 western states, looking particularly at how planning for economic development and higher education articulate and finds disjunction. It sees higher education's view of its role as that of promoting broader access to education, providing career and job training relevant to future needs, and participating in product and market development. But economic developers look to higher education to educate a diverse workforce in increasingly sophisticated skills, provide necessary research and technical development assistance, participate in public/private partnerships for economic development, develop the potential of all educational sectors in relation to economic needs, and help attract new business and industry to the state. Separate statewide summaries of economic development and higher education plans are included for Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado; Hawaii, Idaho, Minnesota, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. An appendix notes methodology and lists state sources. (CH)

Demographic and economic conditions in the Caribbean region combine with social and historical factors to create a structural migration situation: direction and magnitude of the flow might shift, pressures pushing Caribbean Islanders toward migration are constant. Five structural "pull" features encourage migration: (2) the self-contained geographical space of the Caribbean; (2) the tendency of movement to the United States to be preceded by earlier moves, very often to sites of American-financed or managed job opportunities; (3) successful assimilation of Caribbeans into United States society; (4) the continuing role in international relations of ethnicity; and (5) Federal immigration law and national sentiment that support the principle of family reunification. Structural"push" factors, such as overpopulation, land hunger and land scarcity, also encourages migration. Caribbean nations' own efforts to industrialize and regulate migration (such as those made in Trinidad and Haiti) have not managed to solve the problems created by the large-scale migration of poor and unskilled workers, and the emigration to the United States of professionals and skilled workers. While measures such as the Caribbean Basin Initiative cannot cure the pressures of migration, they can help to alleviate internal economic problems and, therefore, they should be supported. Given the overall level of concern among all Caribbean governments, however, it appears that a Caribbean-wide approach to migration is overdue. (KH)

The purpose of the document is to (1) define the meaning of development education in a United States context, (2) describe formal and nonformal development activities in the United States, and (3) suggest steps that could be taken in the future to promote development education efforts in the United Staes. Development education is seen as both process and content, encompassing programs that: transfer factual information about developing countries and people as well as about global social, economic, and political structures and problems; foster understanding of development as a process that involves all nations; create a broad global consciousness; promote values and attitudes to encourage responsibility to correct injustices; and engage citizens in action and advocacy to improve the quality of life for all people. A brief overview describes development education programs undertaken by: research, education, and action organizations with a United State focus; private and voluntary field-oriented organizations; churches; schools and universities; student exchange and volunteer programs. Among the activities suggested to promote development education activities are: developing communications networks among educating organizations; establishing a national, annual development education "event"; promoting statewide councils; publicizing linkages between U.S. and world poverty and development; and engaging Americans more directly with the poor. (NEC)

This literature survey analyzes the process of industrial restructuring as it is occurring in the Republic of Korea, Japan, Singapore, and the United States. It looks in particular at how various agents of education and training in these countries--the school system, public and private education and training institutions and firms--are responding to the new and continually changing training priorities that are generated by structural change and technological innovation in the economy. The survey found that the primary agents of structural and technological change differ between the countries. The United States represents the extreme of relying almost exclusively on private sector initiatives and market forces in the restructuring process, whereas in Korea the government assumes the prime responsibility of facilitating adjustment to industrial change by economic and social policy measures. The study also found that in all four countries, there is a universal scramble for higher qualifications as a means to secure a good job. At the same time, many of the countries seem to consider that the output of the school system is inadequate to meet employer needs. The United States, however, has the advantage of a decentralized training system with strong links to employers, whereas the Japanese are successful with in-house training. The study finally emphasizes the relentless national drive for excellence in research and education that permeates the Asian countries' efforts, especially in the case of Japan. (KC)

Raising Arizona was the challenge of the 20th century. Sustaining Arizona is now the challenge of the 21st. A crucial part of that task is not just understanding today's knowledge economy, but mastering it. Ray and Charles Eames, the creative geniuses behind many iconic 20th century designs, debuted their film "Powers of 10" in 1977. In nine minutes, the viewer zooms from a picnic in a park to a view of the universe from outer space back to being inside the cells of the human body. The journey is a powerful lesson in perspective. For decision makers, the lesson is clear: each level offers crucial input for wise choices. This paper applies the "Powers of 10" idea. As a result, this paper looks at issues and demands from three perspectives: 30,000 feet, 10,000 feet, and on the ground. Each level provides insights vital to Arizona finding new ways to develop a quality workforce suited to "stimulating innovation, creating wealth, and promoting economic growth." "To Learn and Earn" concludes with questions that the Arizona Minority Education Policy Analysis Center (AMEPAC) sees as a starting point for working with partners throughout Arizona. (Contains 35 endnotes.) ["To Learn and Earn: Arizona's Unfinished Business in Human Capital" was written with Richard Toon and Yuri Artibise. This report was prepared for the Arizona Minority Education Policy Analysis Center (AMEPAC).]

To frame the larger research agenda requires an intimate blending of knowledge of the situations of foreign research universities and those of public research universities in the United States. The first step was to bring together for a two-day symposium a group of scholars and practitioners, some with deep and varied knowledge of United States public research universities and others with specific knowledge of the university systems and recent changes in pertinent foreign countries. The purpose of the symposium was to share comparative information and analysis, to discuss major issues facing national and supranational systems of higher education and the role of research universities, and to identify the most promising avenues for further investigation. The symposium was focused on a group consisting largely of economically developed countries and regions that are important exemplars or locales for consideration of reform or alternative systems from those of the U. S. Considerations were structured around four major policy areas, including: (1) Fees and Finance; (2) Access, Quality and Accountability; (3) Science and Technology; and (4) Organization and Governance. Participants (a list of whom is in Appendix 1) provided working papers on assigned topics related to one or more of the four policy areas, or were asked to comment on the papers and the short presentations. This narrative provides a summary of the symposium proceedings, attempting to capture the gist of what was a varied and thought-provoking set of presentations and discussions. Presentations include the following: (1) Introduction (Chancellor Robert Birgeneau and C. Judson King); (2) OECD Perspective on Major International Issues Affecting Public Higher Education (Chaired by David Breneman and participated by Stephan Vincent-Lancrin); (3) Environmental Scan of U.S. Public Higher Education--Issues and Trends (Chaired by Ahmed Bawa and participated by Irwin Feller and Robert Berdahl); (4) Environmental Scan of Higher Education in Europe--Approaches and Trends (Chaired by John Aubrey Douglass Marijk van der Wende and participated by Michael Shattock, Wilhelm Krull, and Daniel Fallon); (5) Environmental Scan of Higher Education in the Pacific Region--Approaches and Trends (Chaired by Otto C. C. Lin and participated by Philip Altbach, Wan-Hua Ma, and Rory Hume); (6) Comparative Approaches to Financing of Public Higher Education (Chaired by Sheldon Rothblatt and participated by David Palfreyman, Katharine Lyall, and David Breneman); (7) Comparative Approaches to Access and Marketing: Undergraduate Education and Degree Production (Chaired by Steven Brint and participated by John Aubrey Douglass, Kerstin Eliasson, and Grant Harman); (8) Science and Technology Initiatives and Strategies for Economic Development (Chaired by Irwin Feller and participated by Otto C. C. Lin, Henry Etzkowitz, Taizo Yakushiji, and John Zysman); (9) Comparative Approaches to Governance and Management of Higher Education Systems (Chaired by Katharine Lyall and participated by Christine Musselin, Jeroen Huisman, and C. Judson King); and (10) Reflection on Discussion and Targets for Further Research (Delivered by Robert Berdahl, Taizo Yakushiji, Daniel Fallon and John Zysman). Appendices include: (1) List of Symposium Participants; and (2) References and Resources. (Lists 4 resources.)

There was a notable transition in the nature, content, and administration of rural policies in many developed nations in the 1980s and 1990s. These changes concerned issues of governance and institutional framework, the definition of "development," and policy goals and content. A key question, however, concerns the extent to which shifts in the language or rhetoric of rural policy are matched by reality. This paper assesses rural policy changes and their rationale in relation to rural trends at the beginning of the new century. It draws heavily on recent experience in the European Union, especially implementation of Agenda 2000, and also reviews rural policy changes in the United States, Canada, and UK countries. In all these countries, rural policies of a territorial nature now comprise many of these elements: efforts to reinforce rural economies; attempts to restructure agriculture; strengthening of transportation and telecommunications infrastructure; improved business assistance; development of human resources through vocational training, entrepreneurship education, and school-to-work initiatives; local "capacity building"; creation of products based on local identity; new or adapted financial instruments; and new ways of providing public services in rural areas. Trends in institutional arrangements for delivery of rural policy include decentralization, support for bottom-up development, better policy coordination, and regional and local partnerships. Challenges for rural policy and the ways that developed countries are meeting these challenges are discussed. (SV)