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Since the beginning of the 20th century, the number of saigas (Saiga tatarica tatarica L., 1766) sharply decreased twice as a result of human activity. After the first decrease, all four saiga populations (the Northwest Pre-Caspian, Ustyurt, Volga–Ural, and Betpakdala) recovered, and they numbered more than 1 million heads by the 1970–80s. However, after the second decrease (since the beginning of the 21st century), an increase in the number of these ungulates has been noted only for two populations, the Volga–Ural and Betpakdala. The goal of the study is to analyze the biological parameters of the four populations and to identify the differences that allowed the saigas inhabiting the Volga–Ural interfluve and Betpakdala to overcome population depression and to recover their numbers. At the end of the 20th century, the economic situation in the countries inhabited by saigas promoted poaching among the population, which led to a sharp decrease in the total number of these ungulates down to 50 000. The area of the main range decreased by 50 times for the Northwest Pre-Caspian saiga population and by 2.4–5 times for the other three populations. The distance of seasonal migrations, as well as animal involvement, also decreased. The saiga population of the Northwest Pre-Caspian has become practically sedentary. The low-number periods are characterized by a decrease in herds of different sizes found throughout the year; herds with less than 50 animals were registered in 56–100% of cases. In the early 2000s, the main biological parameters characterizing the four saiga populations were comparable. Moreover, the proportion of adult males and the yield of young animals per female in July–August were higher in the population of the Northwest Pre-Caspian in comparison to the other three (11.5 ± 1.9% and 0.81 ± 0.18 ind. vs. 8.7 ± 3.8% and 0.48 ± 0.40 ind., respectively). The increase in the Volga–Ural and Betpakdala populations is mainly due to their effective protection and the education of the local people with the support of the Kazakhstan government and international foundations, which significantly reduce the poaching pressure.

The purpose of the research is studying current fauna of helminths in wild artiodactyls and analysis of their ecological relationships with populations of representatives of the Artiodactyla in biogeocenoses of Karakalpakstan.Materials and methods. Wild populations of artiodactyls were studied in 2016–2020 in the ecosystems of the Kyzyl Kum, Ustyurt and the lower reaches of the Amu Darya, including the drained bottom of the Aral Sea. Some killed animals (the saiga, Persian gazelle, and Bokharan deer) seized from poachers, as well as those killed by predators and feral dogs in the sanctuaries and reserves of Karakalpakstan were used to collect helminthological material. Wild boars were examined after shooting during the hunting season. A total of 11 saigas, 13 Persian gazelles, 7 Bokharan deer and 16 wild boars, and 213 fecal samples from these animals were examined. The studies were carried out using generally accepted methods of dissection (Skryabin, 1928; Ivashkin et al., 1971) and ovoscopy of animal feces. For a comparative analysis of helminth fauna of the study animals, we used previously collected (1959–1978) parasites from the wild boar, saiga, Persian gazelle and Bokharan deer in Karakalpakstan.Results and discussion. We have found that the fauna of the Artiodactyla is represented by the following 5 species in the biogeocenosis of Karakalpakstan: Sus scrofa nigripes Blan., Cervis elaphus bactrianus Lydek., Gazella subgutturosa Gueld., Saiga tatarica Linn., and Ovis orientalis arcal Gmel., in which we identified 26 helminth species classified as Cestoda, Trematoda and Nematoda. Cestodes are represented by 6 species, trematodes by 2 species, and nematodes by 18 species. The helminth species composition of the study animals is 14 species in pigs, 11 species in Bokharan deer, 13 species in saigas and 14 species in Persian gazelles. Representatives of the genera Taenia, Echinococcus, Fasciola, Schistosoma, Gongylonema and Setaria are common to these animal species. By nature of the biological cycle, the helminths of the study artiodactyls recorded by us can be divided into two groups: monoxenous and heteroxenous. Monoxenous parasites include representatives of the Trichocephalidae (3 species), Trichostrongylidae (2 species), Dictyocaulidae (2 species), Syphaciidae (1 species), and Ascarididae (1 species), whose life cycles proceed without changing hosts. Eighteen species of representatives of cestodes (6 species), trematodes (2 species) and nematodes (10 species) are developed with the involvement of intermediate hosts.

This article submits the analysis of the study of the climate change and its influence on dynamics of the number of saigas in Kazakhstan, which appeared 20 thousand years ago as a mammoth and a rhinoceros.

The abundance of the saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica tatarica L., 1766) in the Northwest Pre-Caspian region has remained at an extremely low level over the past 20 years. Comparison of some biological parameters of the population for periods with different numbers of animals made it possible to reveal a number of low-population features. Thus, along with a decrease in the number of saigas (from 800 000 heads in 1958 to 4500 in 2016), its habitat area also decreased (from 60 000–70 000 to 2000–3000 km2, respectively), and a significant part of the population transitioned to a sedentary lifestyle in the protected areas of the Chernye Zemli ecoregion. A long-time deficiency of sexually mature males in the population (less than 10%) led to a decrease in its growth and, consequently, to a decrease in its number. At the same time, the total fecundity of females decreased (from 1.27 ± 0.25 calves in years of high abundance to 0.92 ± 0.39 recently) due to an increase in barrenness in different age groups caused by the lack of males in the population. Males prevail over females in newborns (51.9 and 48.1%, respectively). The increased weight of newborn saiga calves (100 g on average for both males and females) and their decreased mortality in the first days after birth (under favorable weather conditions) indirectly indicate the normal course of embryogenesis and a sufficient quantity and quality of feed. An increase in the proportion of sexually mature stags will lead to an increase in the population number, as the reproductive functions of the population practically did not change during the period of its depression.

Promoting public participation is a practical move to strengthen wildlife conservation. This study focuses on saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica), an endangered species which has received international concern. Based on an extended version of the Theory of Planned Behavior and a sample of 536 Chinese residents aged 16–40 collected through an online survey, we applied Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling to explore the predictors of the behavioral intention to participate in saiga antelope conservation. The results show that perceived behavioral control is the most influential predictor that contributes to the value of the behavioral intention, followed by injunctive norm, attitude to participation, knowledge of saiga antelope, experience of wildlife conservation, and attitude to saiga antelope, altogether explaining 48.4% of the variance of the behavioral intention. To promote public participation in saiga antelope conservation, strengthening science popularization and broadening the channels of participation are suggested.

Shared use of rangelands by livestock and wildlife can lead to disease transmission. To align agricultural livelihoods with wildlife conservation, a multi-pronged and interdisciplinary approach for disease management is needed, particularly in data-limited situations with migratory hosts. Migratory wildlife and livestock can range over vast areas, and opportunities for disease control interventions are limited. Predictive frameworks are needed which can allow for identification of potential sites and timings of interventions. We developed an iterative three-step framework to assess cross-species disease transmission risk between migrating wildlife and livestock in data-limited circumstances and across social-ecological scales. The framework first assesses risk of transmission for potentially important diseases for hosts in a multi-use landscape. Following this, it uses an epidemiological risk function to represent transmission-relevant contact patterns, using density and distribution of the host to map locations and periods of disease risk. Finally, it takes fine-scale data on livestock management and observed wildlife-livestock interactions to provide locally-relevant insights on disease risk. We applied the framework to characterize disease transmission between livestock and saiga antelopes (Saiga tatarica) in Central Kazakhstan. At step 1, we identified peste-des-petits-ruminants as posing a high risk of transmission from livestock to saigas, foot-and-mouth disease as low risk, lumpy skin disease as unknown and pasteurellosis as uncertain risk. At step 2 we identified regions of high disease transmission risk at different times of year, indicating where disease management should be focussed. At step 3, we synthesized field surveys, government data and literature review to assess the role of livestock in the 2015 saiga mass mortality event from pasteurellosis, concluding that it was minimal. Synthesis and Applications. Our iterative framework has wide applicability in assessing and predicting disease spill-over at management-relevant temporal and spatial scales in areas where livestock share space with migratory species. Our case study demonstrated the value of combining ecological and social information to inform management of targeted interventions to reduce disease risk, which can be used to plan disease surveillance and vaccination programmes.

The Crimean Peninsula has a rich archaeological record characterised by numerous multi-layered sites from the Middle Palaeolithic and by a number of important sites representing the transition from the Middle to the Upper Palaeolithic. Absolute dates place the region as one of the last Neanderthal refuges in Europe. Combining dental meso- and microwear analyses of worn molars found at faunal assemblages from different sites across Crimea, we can characterise the feeding habits of ungulates at different scales in their lifetime. The proxy data resulting from these analyses provide evidence not only on diet but also on (1) the habitat where fauna were hunted and (2) the duration of the events of human occupation in each archaeological level. For this palaeoecological reconstruction, we analysed three sites: Kabazi II and Chokurcha I from the Middle Palaeolithic and Siuren I from the Early Upper Palaeolithic. We focused particularly on the repeated Neanderthal subsistence pattern observed at Kabazi II throughout the sequence (around 80 to 48 ky). Analyses revealed that Equus hydruntinus (wild ass) was feeding on abrasive grasses, suggesting it was occupying open habitats, while Saiga tatarica (saiga antelope) was mixed feeding and probably consuming significant amounts of browse and lichens in relatively open habitats. Furthermore, variability in microwear signalled short seasonal occupations for all assemblages. During the Middle Palaeolithic and the early Upper Palaeolithic, these sites were occupied during the warm season.

The human population grows inexorably. When Charles Darwin explored the southern cone of South America in 1830, fewer than 1.2 billion people inhabited Earth. When Ehrlich’s Population Bomb appeared in 1968 there were ~3.5 billion. We approach eight billion today, and biospheric impacts do not abate. We’ve affected most life forms through climate modification, harvest, erasure and fragmentation of habitat, disease, and the casting of alien species. Given the lack of abatement in human population growth, herein we focus on the modalities of ecological disruption – direct and indirect – that mitigate the changing role of ungulates in landscapes. Much of what was once generally predictable in terms of pattern and process is no longer. Offshore climatic events have strong onshore consequence, as exemplified by toxic algal blooms in the Patagonian Pacific. These have diminished the harvest of fish and likely resulted in fisherman using dogs to hunt huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus), the most endangered large terrestrial mammal of the Western Hemisphere. Similarly, human economies foment change in the Himalayan realm and Gobi Desert by increasing numbers of cashmere-producing goats, and where dogs that once followed tourists or guarded livestock they now hunt a half dozen threatened, endangered, and rare ungulates including kiang (Equus kiang) and chiru (Pantholops hodgsonii), saiga (Saiga tatarica) and takin (Budorcas taxicolor), spread disease, and displace snow leopards (Panthera uncia). In North America’s Great Basin Desert, one hundred years of intense livestock grazing created a phase shift by which changed plant communities enabled mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) colonization. An altered predator-prey system ensued with the arrival of pumas (Panthera concolor). Patterns of resilience postulated by Hollings (1973) become more difficult to witness in the absence of humans as our domination of earth destabilizes systems beyond return points. These include ungulates both in and out of protected areas. Consequently, only messy projections of future community reorganization seem reasonable whether related to food webs or assembly rules that once governed ungulate communities of the very recent past.

The features of Uralian saiga habitats are discussed. Periods of high and low abundance of the animals, which alternate depending on the productivity of vegetation communities and territorial humidity (the number of watering places) due to climate changes, are shown. After periodic cases of the mass death of saiga, their population is quickly restored to its previous level, which is likely to be facilitated by the existing feed and water resources.

Few studies utilise modern species distribution data and modeling to make predictions for examining potential fossil localities. Instead, species distribution modeling is often used for palaeoenvironmental interpretations. Using palaeoclimate data to model potential past distributions for a species provides a prediction showing areas where its fossil remains may be found. In this study, the current, Last Glacial Maximum, and Last Interglacial potential distributions of the arid steppe-obligate saiga antelope (Artiodactyla: Bovidae, Saiga tatarica) were modeled using the species distribution model Maxent. Few fossil records exist, but available fossil locality records were used to validate both palaeo models, resulting in speculative predictions about where the saiga may have lived. Known fossil localities of saiga from the Last Glacial Maximum time period were located within predicted moderately suitable environments, while four of seven Last Interglacial fossil localities were located within predicted moderately suitable environments, suggesting that models can accurately identify areas where fossils for the saiga can be found. Specifically, these models suggest saiga fossils may be located in northwestern and northeastern China, the western and central regions of the Middle East, and southern Alaska. The predicted areas in northeastern China are of particular interest because saiga fossils have not been identified in this region, but some palaeontologists theorize that northeast China may have been suitable for saiga in the past. The models lend credence to this argument.

Saiga antelope ( Saiga tatarica ) is one of the typical late Pleistocene species of the cold and arid mammoth steppe that covered a large area of northern hemisphere. The species is currently endangered and persists only in small areas of Central Asian steppe and desert ecosystems. The investigation of the ecology of the Pleistocene saiga using stable isotope ratios (δ 13 C, δ 15 N) aimed to decipher how different their diet and habitat were from those observed nowadays in relict populations. Up to 76 samples of bone collagen of ancient saiga from Western Europe, Siberia and Eastern Beringia were analysed and compared with 52 samples of hair and bone collagen of modern specimens from Kazahkstan, Russia and Mongolia. The δ 13 C values of the ancient saiga do not exhibit a clear trend over time. They cover the same range of values as the modern ones, from a C3-dominated to a C3-C4-dominated mixed diet (including probably Chenopodiaceae). In contrast, the δ 15 N values of fossil saigas are more variable and lower on average than the extant ones. The lowest δ 15 N values of ancient saiga are found around the Last Glacial Maximum, reflecting the influence of the cold conditions at that time. On the other hand, fossil saiga occupying the same regions as the historical and modern populations exhibit high δ 15 N values similar to the modern ones, confirming ecological continuity over time. Modern saiga is thus occupying just one of its potential diverse habitats they used in the past. Therefore, the extant saiga is not a refugee species confined to a suboptimal habitat. During the late Pleistocene, the saiga occupied a separate niche compared with the other ungulates of the mammoth steppe. However, this species could also adapt to a lichen-dominated diet normally seen in reindeer, leading to an isotopic overlap between the two species in south-western France and Alaska around the Last Glacial Maximum. This adaptation allowed a geographical expansion that does not correspond to a habitat-tracking episode. Hence, the realized niche currently observed for the saiga is reduced compared with their potential capacity for adaptation, a crucially important factor for the conservation of this endangered species.

Krivokhatsky VA, Kerimova IG, Anikin VV, Astakhov DM, Astakhova AS, Ilyina EV, Plotnikov IS, Samartseva JV. 2020. Antlions (Neuroptera, Myrmeleontidae) along the North Caspian shore; distributional analysis and zoogeographical division of Caspian coast of Russia. Biodiversitas 21: 258-281. Zoogeographically regionalization of Northern Caspian territory, adjacent Eastern Caucasian and Volga-Ural regions were carried out by using the original cladistic program (CLA) based on faunistic investigations of Neuroptera, Myrmeleontidae. A total of 47 of elementary districts of physical geography or geobotanical mapping and 41 species of antlions were used for analyses in the Matrix. 46 elementary faunas were combined in the region into seven concrete faunas. The ConCaspian and Volga-Ural antlion faunas were mixed. Aspoeckiana uralensis Hölzel, 1969 was considered as superspecies with a complex of five subspecies with overlapping areas of distribution, associated in its origin with the spread of Northern antelopes (Saiga tatarica (Linnaeus, 1766), Gazella subgutturosa Guldenstaedt, 1780, Procapra gutturosa Pallas, 1777). At the North Caspian Shore Aspoeckiana uralensis uralensis Hölzel, 1969, and Aspoeckiana uralensis jakushenkoi Zakharenko, 1983, cohabited with the saiga antelope, using their paths for larval colonies. The dynamics of Macronemurus bilineatus Brauer, 1868 area over the past 100 years was described in detail. For some paleoenvironmental conditions of their origin and colonization of the Caspian region are reconstructed. The leading role of Turan in the formation of the fauna of the antlions is determined.

During the Pleistocene, the saiga antelope, a nomadic, non-territorial, herding species, inhabited vast areas of Eurasia and North America; its distribution was at its maximum extent in the last glaciation. Now, it is restricted to a few isolated populations in Central Asia. Two main forms of saiga were recognised: Saiga borealis and S. tatarica. The former became extinct at the beginning of Holocene, the latter has survived since the Pleistocene to the present. They are regarded either as two species or as two subspecies of S. tatarica. Our comparison of skull and horn measurements of many Eurasian specimens, including literature data, revealed significant differences between these taxa. S. borealis was larger than S. tatarica in terms of some cranial measurements, whereas S. tatarica was characterised by a greater diameter of horncore base. However, the distinction involved only a few metric features and the ranges of all the analysed measurements overlapped at least partially, indicating that the two taxa may not be true species. Our analyses also showed that the skull of S. tatarica had become smaller since the Pleistocene in terms of several measurements, which was probably associated with the climate and palaeogeographical changes at the end of the last glaciation and a decrease in the population size. We found significant differences between the various geographical subgroups of S. borealis and S. tatarica only in some measurements. The observed dissimilarities between S. borealis and S. tatarica correspond most probably to subspecies level and may have resulted from a biogeographical differentiation of the saiga populations in the Pleistocene.

The saiga antelope ( Saiga tatarica ), which today is a specialist steppe herbivore adapted to long-distance migrations in massive herds, appeared at irregular intervals in the Late Pleistocene Europe. Its special ecological requirements limited the number and timing of dispersal events. In the Eemian the saiga was absent on the continent. During MIS 5d-a, MIS 4 and MIS 3 its range was restricted to steppe areas north of the Black Sea. In MIS 2 and the Late Glacial (MIS 1) this species was able to colonize Central Europe at least three or four times and Western Europe at least twice. The most successful second migration dates to part of GS-2c, GS-2b and part of GS-2a, from ca. 19.5 to 15.3 cal ka BP when the saiga reached southern France. During GI-1d (Older Dryas), ca. 14.0 cal ka BP, the saiga reached England. The first migration during the GI-2 warm phase (ca. 23.7–23.3 cal ka BP) and the last one (ca. 13.5 cal ka BP) in the GI–1c 2 cool phase were probably restricted to Central Europe.

Aim. The saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica L.) is the last hoofed mammal surviving in the Russian steppe which is on the verge of extinction today. The aim of this article is to assess the current state of the saiga in Russia, determine the causes of the reduction in its population and area and to develop recommendations for the conserva- tion of this species. Methods. The material, presented in the paper, is the result of the analysis of the available litera- ture sources on the Saiga, personal observations on the animals in the period of 1959-2015 in nature and various nurseries, including the Center for rare animals of European steppes founded in 2004. Results. The article highlights the issues of population dynamics in Saiga distributions in the last century, the reasons for the reduction in its amount, the measures taken for the protection of this species and its present condition. We consider specific measures for Saiga conservation in the modern world. We also take into account the experience of the Association "Wildlife of the Steppe", where they have developed the biotechnology of breeding Saiga in nurseries, zoos and farms. And for many years this association has been home for self-reproducing groupings of this animal. Main con- clusions. Currently, Saiga antelope in Russia is an endangered species, and conservation requires the state and public to take serious urgent measures to protect and restore the population, including breeding in artificial conditions and release into the wild. Keywords: Saiga, Russia, endangered species, number, protection, breeding, Association "Wildlife of the Steppe".

Stopping declines in biodiversity is critically important, but it is only a first step toward achieving more ambitious conservation goals. The absence of an objective and practical definition of species recovery that is applicable across taxonomic groups leads to inconsistent targets in recovery plans and frustrates reporting and maximization of conservation impact. We devised a framework for comprehensively assessing species recovery and conservation success. We propose a definition of a fully recovered species that emphasizes viability, ecological functionality, and representation; and use counterfactual approaches to quantify degree of recovery. This allowed us to calculate a set of 4 conservation metrics that demonstrate impacts of conservation efforts to date (conservation legacy); identify dependence of a species on conservation actions (conservation dependence); quantify expected gains resulting from conservation action in the medium term (conservation gain); and specify requirements to achieve maximum plausible recovery over the long term (recovery potential). These metrics can incentivize the establishment and achievement of ambitious conservation targets. We illustrate their use by applying the framework to a vertebrate, an invertebrate, and a woody and an herbaceous plant. Our approach is a preliminary framework for an International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Green List of Species, which was mandated by a resolution of IUCN members in 2012. Although there are several challenges in applying our proposed framework to a wide range of species, we believe its further development, implementation, and integration with the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species will help catalyze a positive and ambitious vision for conservation that will drive sustained conservation action. ISSN:0888-8892 ISSN:1523-1739

Analysis of the species composition and community structure of helminths in saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) was performed using multi-year (1979-2013) data collected from the “Askania Nova” Biosphere Reserve, Ukraine. During this period, 31 saiga antelopes of different ages (7 calves, 24 adults) were examined; totally, more then 63,900 helminth specimens were collected and identified by morphological criteria. Levels of saiga infection by nematodes were from 39 to 671 EPG (207±132 SD); seasonal fluctuations in saiga infections were insignificant (Mann-Whitney test; p>0.05). Nineteen helminth species were found in saigas in the “Askania Nova”: 3 species of Cestoda (Avitellina centripunctata, Moniezia expansa and Taenia hydatigena) and 16 species of Nematoda (Chabertia ovina, Haemonchus contortus, Marshallagia marshalli, Cooperia oncophora, Camelostrongylus mentulatus, Aonchotheca bovis, Skrjabinema ovis, Oesophagostomum venulosum, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. probolorus, Ostertagia ostertagi, O. circumcincta, O. trifurcata, Nematodirus spp., Trichurus ovis). From 2 to 13 species per one host were observed. Nematodes dominated within the parasite community and composed more then 99 % of the total helminths found. Significant differences were found in helminth diversity between young and adult saigas (p

Horns of Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) have always been an ingredient of “Lingyangjiao”, a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Persistent hunting for Saiga antelope has already threatened the survival of critical endangered populations in wild. To control the growing pressure, CITES and Chinese government have legislated for monitoring the trade of Saiga horns. However, similar ungulate horns are difficult to identify by their morphological characteristics, which has impeded the law enforcement. Besides Saiga antelope, other seven ungulate species which have similar horns are also sold and marked as “Lingyangjiao” in TCM markets to offset shortage of Saiga antelope horns. Such species are Gazella subgutturosa, Pantholops hodgsonii, Procapra picticaudata, Procapra gutturosa, Procapra przewalskii, Capra hircus, and Ovis aries. Our study aimed at implementing DNA barcoding technology to diagnose Saiga horns and the substitutes. We successfully extracted genomic DNA from horn samples. We recovered COI sequences of 644 bp with specific primers and 349 bp with nested PCR primers designed for degraded horn samples. The mean interspecific genetic distance of data set of the 644-bp full barcodes and the 349-bp mini-barcodes was 14.96% and 15.38%, respectively, and the mean intraspecific distance was 0.24% and 0.20%, respectively. Each species formed independent clades in neighbor-joining (NJ) phylogenetic tree of the two data sets with >99% supporting values, except P. gutturosa and P. przewalskii. The deep genetic distances gap and clear species clades in NJ tree of either full barcodes or mini-barcodes suggest that barcoding technology is an effective tool to diagnose Saiga horns and their substitutes. Barcoding diagnosis protocol developed here will simplify diagnosis of “Lingyangjiao” species and will facilitate conservation of endangered ungulates involved in TCM “Lingyangjiao” markets, especially the Saiga antelope.

An interfaced analysis of change of forage vegetation, nutrition of saigas (Saiga tatarica), and their state in the steppe regions of Russia is performed. It is noted that the percent of graminoids has increased considerably and the proportion of forbs has decreased in the vegetation of current pastures, which has had a negative impact on the nutrition and state of saigas. It is shown that the lower nutritional value of graminoids has caused a decrease in the digestibility of forage used by saigas and does not provide the physiological requirements of the animals. It is established that modern steppe pastures, where gramineous communities prevail, are of little use or absolutely unsuitable for the stable existence of saiga populations. Only separate dwelling places with an abundance of forbs continue to provide adequate nutrition for saigas and well-being for their local groupings.

The Swiderian tradition of the Tanged Point Complex (Late Upper Palaeolithic) is attested in Crimea through a few ill-known sites dated to the Younger Dryas and early Preboreal. Little information on subsistence is available on this period yet; with this article, we present the results of zooarchaeological analyses conducted on the site of Buran-Kaya III Layer 4, in central Crimea. Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) is the dominant species of the assemblage, followed by red fox (Vulpes vulpes), horse (Equus ferus), and hare (Lepus europaeus). Despise the important presence of canid remains, taphonomic observations as well as archaeological context suggest that human is the main accumulator of saiga antelope remains. Hunter–gatherers likely brought the antelope carcasses whole to the site and performed skinning activity, as well as consumption of meat and bone marrow. Seasonality data from juvenile antelope suggest that the animals were acquired in the late summer or Fall. Based on the ethology of modern populations of saiga antelope, we infer that hunter–gatherers took advantage of the particular geographic setting of the Crimean mountains to efficiently exploit this resource. By drawing comparisons with other known sites of this period, we call attention for future research in exploring the seasonality of subsistence in the Crimea at the Pleistocene–Holocene transition.

Habitat selection for calving by ungulates is an important behavioral trait because it affects neonate survival. Generally, ungulate calving site selection varies by vulnerability to predators, local topography, habitat quality and level of human disturbance. The Mongolian saiga (Saiga tatarica mongolica) is endemic to Mongolia where a threatened population of ∼7000 exists in the northern Gobi Desert. We analyzed factors that could affect selection of saiga calving locations in the Sharga Nature Reserve, western Mongolia, using data obtained from ground surveys over 4 years between 2008 and 2012. Multiple factors explain calving location selection by saiga antelopes, based on the results of a generalized linear mixed model within a use availability framework. Individual saiga females preferred calving locations that were away from settlements and closer to water sources and avoided steeper slopes in comparison with random locations. These results demonstrate that the choice of calving locations for saiga antelope is driven by both internal and external factors. Understanding which factors influence calving location selection for saiga provides insights to protect important habitats.

The trunk-like nose of the saiga antelope Saiga tatarica is a striking example of an exaggerated trait, assumed to having evolved as a dust filter for inhaled air. In addition, it functions to elongate the vocal tract in harem saiga males for producing low-formant calls that serve as a cue to body size for conspecifics. This study applies the source–filter theory to the acoustics of nasal, oral and nasal-and-oral calls that were recorded from a captive herd of 24 mother and 32 neonate saigas within the first 10 days postpartum. Anatomical measurements of the nasal and oral vocal tracts of two specimens (one per age class) helped to establish the settings for the analysis of formants. In both mother and young, the lower formants of nasal calls/call parts were in agreement with the source–filter theory, which suggests lower formants for the longer nasal vocal tract than for the shorter oral vocal tract. Similar fundamental frequencies of the nasal and oral parts of nasal-and-oral calls were also in agreemen...

As drivers of terrestrial ecosystems, humans have replaced large carnivores in most areas, and human influence not only exerts striking ecological pressures on biodiversity at local scales but also has indirect effects in distant corners of the world. We suggest that the multibillion dollar cashmere industry creates economic motivations that link western fashion preferences for cashmere to land use in Central Asia. This penchant for stylish clothing, in turn, encourages herders to increase livestock production which affects persistence of over 6 endangered large mammals in these remote, arid ecosystems. We hypothesized that global trade in cashmere has strong negative effects on native large mammals of deserts and grassland where cashmere-producing goats are raised. We used time series data, ecological snapshots of the biomass of native and domestic ungulates, and ecologically and behaviorally based fieldwork to test our hypothesis. In Mongolia increases in domestic goat production were associated with a 3-fold increase in local profits for herders coexisting with endangered saiga (Saiga tatarica).That increasing domestic grazing pressure carries fitness consequences was inferred on the basis of an approximately 4-fold difference in juvenile recruitment among blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur)in trans-Himalayan India. Across 7 study areas in Mongolia, India, and China's Tibetan Plateau, native ungulate biomass is now

Factors that affect group sizes in large ungulates are generally poorly understood for species from remote regions. Understanding grouping patterns is important for effective species management, but is lacking for the endangered Mongolian saiga (Saiga tatarica mongolica). We studied seasonal changes in the group size and social structure of saigas in relation to environmental and anthropogenic factors in western Mongolia during 2009–2012. To identify group size and composition, we observed saigas monthly while conducting monitoring surveys, and weekly while tracking radio-collared animals. We observed 9268 individuals; median group size was 6.5 (se = 1.7; range = 1–121), and groups of 1–5 animals were most common. Seasonality exerted strong effects with the smallest groups in June and largest in December. The largest mixed and nursery groups formed during pre-rutting and summer seasons, respectively, but no seasonal differences were detected for bachelor groups. The best fitting model, including Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, predation rate and season as covariates, explained ~76% of the variation in monthly ‘typical’ group size. Our results are concordant with studies of other arid-adapted ungulates and suggest vegetation productivity, predation rate and biological cycles are responsible for saiga grouping patterns in Mongolia.

Factors affecting juvenile survival are poorly known in the world’s most northern antelope, the endangered saiga (Saiga tatarica), yet these factors are fundamental for understanding what drives population change. We monitored Mongolia saiga (S. tatarica mongolica) calves in Sharga Nature Reserve, western Mongolia, during 2008–2010. Our results showed that male and single calves were heavier than females and twins, respectively. However, we identified no significant differences in seasonal or annual survival rates between sexes or between singletons and twins. Litter size and birth mass varied among years, and there was a negative relationship between these variables. Survival of calves during the 1st year was best explained by the covariates of year and litter size (confounded with body mass), suggesting that interannual variation in environmental conditions influenced twinning rates and body mass, and might play a key role in 1st-year survival. We identified 3 sources of mortality—predation by raptors, foxes (red fox [Vulpes vulpes] and corsac fox [V. corsac]), and lynx (Lynx lynx). Most predation was attributed to raptors, such as golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus). Our results point to both environmental and biotic factors affecting survival of juvenile saiga.

Climate changes that occurred during the Late Pleistocene have profound effects on the distribution of many plant and animal species and influenced the formation of contemporary faunas and floras of Europe. The course and mechanisms of responses of species to the past climate changes are now being intensively studied by the use of direct radiocarbon dating and genetic analyses of fossil remains. Here, we review the advances in understanding these processes by the example of four mammal species: woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius), cave bear (Ursus spelaeus s. l.), saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) and collared lemmings (Dicrostonyx ssp.). The cases discussed here as well as others show that the migrations, range shifts and local extinctions were the main responses to climate changes and that the dynamics of these climate driven processes were much more profound than it was previously thought. Each species reacted by its individual manner, which depended on its biology and adaptation abilities to the changing environment and climate conditions. The most severe changes in European ecosystems that affected the largest number of species took place around 33–31 ka BP, during the Last Glacial Maximum 22–19 ka BP and the Late Glacial warming 15–13 ka BP.

Cold-adapted large mammal faunas reached the Iberian Peninsula during the coldest periods of the Late Pleistocene. A total of 75 Iberian sites yielded remains of the cold-adapted faunal complex which is composed of the species, Mammuthus primigenius (woolly mammoth), Coelodonta antiquitatis (woolly rhinoceros), Rangifer tarandus (reindeer) and, to a lesser extent, Gulo gulo (wolverine), Alopex lagopus (arctic fox), Ovibos moschatus (musk-ox) and Saiga tatarica (saiga antelope). All published information about localities containing cold-adapted large mammal species has been compiled and interpreted according to its geographical location and chronology. Discussion is focused on examining European faunal corridors into Iberia, particularly during cold phases and concentrating on routes to the central and southern part of the peninsula. Three main episodes with presence of cold-adapted faunas appear to occur within the Iberian Peninsula. The geographic distribution of sites containing the remains of cold-adapted species differs among the three episodes. The oldest occurrence of cold-adapted taxa has been dated around 200–100 ka BP. During this time, the southern limit appears to be about 40°N latitude (∼Madrid). During the following episode, between 42 and 31 ka BP, the southernmost limit of cold-adapted fauna is identified by woolly mammoth (M. primigenius) remains at Padul, Granada, (37°01′01′N) near the southernmost part of the peninsula. Cold-adapted species appear to be limited to the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula during the last episode, which occurred during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and Younger Dryas (YD).

Based on a long-term field investigation and other research results, we reviewed the status and distribution of ungulates in Xinjiang, China. The ungulates in Xinjiang included 19 ungulate species (30 subspecies) from 6 families and 2 orders. Among them, 3 species (2 subspecies) relate to Equidae (Per- risodactyla), and 16 species (28 subspecies) are from 5 families of Artiodactyla. In this paper, we analyzed the conservation status of most rare and important 13 ungulate species. Firstly, we proposed the protec- tion of genetic diversity of Camelus ferus and the distribution areas of Moschus sifanicus, Procapra przewalskii and Saiga tatarica in Xinjiang. We found that Moschus sifanicus but not Procapra przewalskii distributed in Xinjiang. It was not clear whether the remnant populations of Saiga tatarica existed in Xinjiang and China-Kazakhstan border or not. We discussed that the protection level and rational use of Capra si- birica and enhancing protection level and enlarging monitoring and research projects for Pantholops hodgsoni and Gazella subgutturosa. And we would like to suggest Forestry Department to develop the captive breeding of Tibetan antelope for rational use. In addition, the captive breeding of Cervus elaphus in Xinjiang was reviewed. Local government should lessen strong control to Cervus elaphus because of many breeding centers' establishment.

Summary 1. Conservation of declining migratory species is a challenging task, as the factors that may have determined their past distribution may not determine their current and future distribution. Saiga antelope Saiga tatarica populations have massively declined due to poaching. The species is now beginning to recover in Kazakhstan and protected areas are being implemented. Using 25 years of aerial monitoring data, we identified changes in the spring distribution and predicted densities of saiga to prioritize areas for protection under scenarios of climate change together with changes in disturbance and population size. Conserving the spring distribution is critical as spring calving aggregations are of particular importance to population viability. 2. The current distribution is strongly influenced by disturbance, whereas climate had a stronger influence in the past. The area of highly suitable habitat has halved and become fragmented in the last decade. The existing and proposed protected areas are relatively complementary and perform well under most scenarios of future change. However there is a need to widen the geographical scope of protected area planning if potential future high suitability areas are to be effectively protected. 3. Climate change interacts with other factors to determine the distribution of suitable habitat within and outside protected areas. Scenarios in which conservation has increased saiga population size and density tend to show limited impacts of climate change, while scenarios in which the saiga population fails to recover and disturbance continues show, worsening patchiness and reduced suitable habitat. 4. Synthesis and applications. We provide evidence for changing distribution and density of a migratory species over a large spatio-temporal scale, and suggest that future distribution may be more constrained and spatially heterogeneous. These results have important implications for designing future conservation measures for migratory species, such that areas that robustly show high suitability under a range of potential scenarios of change can be included in protected area expansion plans. Protected area placement based only on current, rather than projected distribution risks wasting opportunities for proactive conservation, particularly for a highly disturbed, recovering species likely to be affected by climate change.

Prior to the Holocene, the range of the saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) spanned from France to the Northwest Territories of Canada. Although its distribution subsequently contracted to the steppes of Central Asia, historical records indicate that it remained extremely abundant until the end of the Soviet Union, after which its populations were reduced by over 95%. We have analysed the mitochondrial control region sequence variation of 27 ancient and 38 modern specimens, to assay how the species' genetic diversity has changed since the Pleistocene. Phylogenetic analyses reveal the existence of two well-supported, and clearly distinct, clades of saiga. The first, spanning a time range from >49 500 C-14 ybp to the present, comprises all the modern specimens and ancient samples from the Northern Urals, Middle Urals and Northeast Yakutia. The second clade is exclusive to the Northern Urals and includes samples dating from between 40 400 to 10 250 C-14 ybp. Current genetic diversity is much lower than that present during the Pleistocene, an observation that data modelling using serial coalescent indicates cannot be explained by genetic drift in a population of constant size. Approximate Bayesian Computation analyses show the observed data is more compatible with a drastic population size reduction (c. 66-77%) following either a demographic bottleneck in the course of the Holocene or late Pleistocene, or a geographic fragmentation (followed by local extinction of one subpopulation) at the Holocene/Pleistocene transition.

The study of mammals suffering intense poaching in remote areas poses an increasingly difficult conservation challenge, in part because the extreme flightiness of such species complicates safe capture. The benefits of handling (an opportunity to obtain biological information and attach radio collars) must be weighed against stress to the animals and potential capture-related mortality. In parts of Central Asia this problem is not trivial, as populations have been heavily harvested and opportunities for restraint are often limited. Mongolian saiga Saiga tatarica mongolica, being both Endangered and poached, typifies these issues. Here we describe capture protocols for adult females handled quickly and without anaesthesia. Using multiple vehicles driven at high speed, individual saiga were isolated from groups and herded into nets. Chase time was linearly associated with rectal temperature (P < 0.03), with maximum pursuits and temperatures of 9 minutes and 43.1°C, respectively; time to release averaged < 7 minutes. Given that rural residents often chase saiga and other desert and steppe-dwelling ungulates, for photography or for amusement, our results offer conservationists and government officials an empirical basis for recommending prudence on chase times and/or for recommending that the practice be prevented.

Many terrestrial mammalian species aggregate to give birth. Such aggregations are likely to be a response to changing resource and water availability, for predator swamping and avoidance of disturbance. The critically endangered saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) is one such species. We analysed spatio-temporal locations of saiga calving aggregations in Kazakhstan over the last four decades obtained from aerial and ground surveys, to identify the factors determining the selection of calving sites within the species’ range as well as any changes in these locations over time. Generalized mixed models were employed in a use – availability framework to assess the factors distinguishing calving from random sites and predict suitable areas for calving. Saigas selected sites, with lower than average productivity and low year to year variability in productivity, at an intermediate distance from water sources, and away from human settlements. A significant change in calving locations was observed during the last decade, with calving areas occurring further north and further away from settlements than previously. The results demonstrate that the choice of calving areas is largely driven by environmental factors. However, disturbance also has a significant impact on calving site selection and in recent decades, its influence overrides that of environmental factors. This increase in the influence of disturbance coincides with a precipitous decline in saiga numbers due to poaching, as well as substantial reductions in the intensity of land use for livestock grazing following the breakup of the Soviet Union. Predictive models based on such studies can improve species conservation by guiding the stratification of sampling for effective monitoring and deployment of rangers to protect the females at this critical time.

Aim Long-distance migrations of terrestrial animals, driven by needs such as food, water and escaping predators and harsh climatic conditions, are widely known phenomena. The saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica tatarica) migrates over long distances in the semi-arid rangelands of Central Asia. Both the saiga's range and its populations have been severely affected by socio-political and land use changes over the last century, related to the formation and dissolution of the Soviet Union. We identified ecological drivers of saiga migration, compared four populations in terms of differences in the geographical characteristics of their ranges and the factors affecting habitat selection within the seasonal ranges. Location Kazakhstan and pre-Caspian Russia. Methods Using 40 years of direct observations, we tested for differences between the four saiga populations' ranges in terms of precipitation, seasonal productivity and topographical variables using discriminant analyses. We tested hypotheses concerning the drivers of migration to their seasonal ranges and assessed the impact of peak and average values and the predictability of drivers of habitat use within the seasonal ranges using logistic regressions. Results Three of the four populations migrate in a similar way, following a latitudinal gradient driven by seasonal changes in productivity, which is closely related to broad-scale differences in precipitation. Intermediate productivity and its low interannual variability determine habitat selection within the seasonal ranges of all the populations. Main conclusions Migration of all four populations is driven by productivity and precipitation. The migrations in Kazakhstan are still intact despite major recent disruption to the populations, whereas their status in the pre-Caspian region is unknown. All four populations are under severe threat from habitat loss, poaching, lack of protection and gaps in ecological knowledge. A better understanding of the drivers of saiga migration at multiple scales is a key step towards addressing these threats.

The global population of saiga Saiga tatarica, categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, declined by > 95% at the end of the 20th century, resulting in several conservation initiatives to protect the species. Previously used methods to monitor population trends were inadequate to assess numbers of saiga properly. We report findings from the first survey for Mongolian saiga S. tatarica mongolica to utilize statistically rigorous methodology, using line transect distance sampling in 2006 and 2007 to obtain population estimates in and around the Sharga Nature Reserve, the southern part of the species' current range. We estimate a density of 0.54 and 0.78 saiga km-2 in 2006 and 2007, respectively. Our best models suggest that 4,938 (95% confidence interval, CI = 2,762–8,828) saiga occupied the 4,524-km2 study area in 2006 and 7,221 (95% CI = 4,380–11,903) occupied the 4,678-km2 study area in 2007. Although these estimates, with their large confidence intervals, preclude an assessment of the impacts of conservation initiatives on population trends, they suggest that the Mongolian saiga population is larger than previous reports based on minimum counts, and adequate to support in situ population recovery. Modifications to the survey protocol hold promise for improving the precision of future estimates. Distance sampling may be a useful, scientifically defensible method for monitoring saiga population trends and assessing the effectiveness of conservation efforts to stabilize and recover populations.

Effective conservation requires a good understanding of factors causing variation in population growth rate. We here analyse the relationship between female age and fecundity in the saiga antelope Saiga tatarica tatarica, a critically endangered ungulate of the Eurasian steppes and semideserts, at both individual and population levels. Annual variation in age structure and twinning rates was investigated using long-term datasets, sampling a total of 3308 females in four populations over more than 40 years. Further, a new non-invasive method is presented, estimating twinning rates from both calves and placentas encountered during calving aggregation transects. At an individual level, the most parsimonious model for twinning rates included three age classes (1, 2 and ≥3 years); however, the model with only two classes (1 and ≥2 years) was competitive and particularly useful for monitoring because these two age classes can reliably be determined by direct observation in the field. Among yearlings, 77.4% were fecund and 11.7% twinned, whereas among older females 94.6% were fecund and 72.6% twinned. At a population level, annual variation in age structure (proportion ≥2 years) correlated well with annual variation in twinning rate except in the north-west Pre-Caspian population. Our results suggest that the recent poaching-driven collapse in saiga numbers has potentially resulted in reductions in fecundity, which will have an impact on population growth rate. Our results highlight the potential for monitoring of twinning rate using non-invasive calving aggregation transects as a cost-effective additional tool to population counts for monitoring the status of this critically endangered species. These monitoring methods are also potentially transferable to other ungulate species.

ARTICLE INFOAvailable online 5 June 2006Keywords:ModelFoot and mouth diseaseNematodeMigrationSeasonalityKazakhstanABSTRACTDisease transmission between wildlife and livestock can undermine conservation efforts,either by challenging the viability of threatened populations, or by eroding public toleranceof actual or potential wildlife disease reservoirs. This paper describes the use of transmis-sion models to assess the risk of disease transfer across the wildlife–livestock boundary,and to target control strategies appropriately. We focus on pathogens of the Saiga antelope(Saiga tatarica) and domestic ruminants in Central Asia. For both foot and mouth diseaseand gastrointestinal nematodes, the main risk is associated with infection of saigas fromlivestock, and subsequent geographical dissemination of infection through saiga migra-tion. The chance of this occurring for foot and mouth disease is predicted to be highlydependent on saiga population size and on the time of viral introduction. For nematodes,the level of risk and predicted direction of transmission are affected by key parasite life his-tory traits, such that prolonged off-host survival of Marshallagia in autumn enables infec-tion of saigas and transfer northwards in spring. Field estimates of parasite abundanceprovide qualitative support for model predictions. The application of models as tools forthe early evaluation of disease transmission between wildlife and livestock is discussed. 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

We analysed the mtDNA control region (HV1) of 93 tissue samples from all five populations of the saiga antelope Saiga tatarica. The results show a slight but clear distinction between S. t. mongolica and S. t. tatarica, supporting the current designation of S. t. mongolica as a subspecies rather than a separate species. Levels of genetic diversity were low in S. t. mongolica, consistent with the small size of its population and long isolation. Although populations of S. t. tatarica have reasonable levels of genetic diversity, their conservation status is perilous. The Kalmykian and Kazakhstan samples each contained unique haplotypes, although the species as a whole appears polyphyletic, consistent with recent fragmentation and rapid population decline. An understanding of the population genetics of this species is an essential prerequisite for conservation action.

A method for forecasting the dates of calving in the saiga population on the basis of average fetal body weight is proposed. The method is based on the relationship between the number of days before calving and the average weight of fetuses, which obviates the necessity of determining fetal age and exact gestation period in this species. The average length of gestation, the dates of the rut in the years studied, and the age of females that have mated immediately upon the onset of the rut and before its cessation have been determined. It is shown that the duration of mass calving depends on the proportion of mature males in the population.

A dynamic game model is presented for the decision-making of female saiga antelopes (Saiga tatarica) gathering in temporary aggregations to give birth. Spatial aggregation is assumed to be a predator-swamping mechanism that involves a cost of an increased risk of calf death from disease. A female's decision to join an aggregation or to calve solitarily depends on her parturition date relative to other individuals and on the number of other females in the birth area. The results are robust to changes in other parameter values. The Evolutionarily Stable Strategy is to join an aggregation and stay for the full period of neonatal vulnerability if calving early in the birth period, to join the aggregation but to leave it early if calving later in the birth period, and to calve solitarily if calving at the end of the birth period. The possible effects of human disturbance on female behaviour are investigated, and testable hypotheses are presented about the behaviour of females in the birth period. The game-theoretic approach to the decision to join an aggregation developed here is broadly applicable to many problems in the ecology of grouping behaviour.

Conservation biologists understand that linking demographic histories of species at risk with causal biotic and abiotic events should help us predict the effects of ongoing biotic and abiotic change. In parallel, researchers have started to use ancient genetic information (aDNA) to explore the demographic histories of a number of species present in the Pleistocene fossil record (see, e.g. Shapiro et al. 2004). However, aDNA studies have primarily focused on identifying long-term population trends, linked to climate variability and the role of early human activity. Population trends over more recent time, e.g. during the Holocene, have been poorly explored, partly owing to analytical limitations. In this issue, Campos et al. (2010a) highlight the potential of aDNA to investigate demographic patterns over such recent time periods for the compelling and endangered saiga antelope Saiga tatarica (Fig. 1). The time may come when past and current demography can be combined to produce a seamless record. [Figure: see text].

A s recently as 150 years ago, most of Earth's grasslands supported large migratory populations of hoofed herbivores belonging to the Artiodactyla, Perissodactyla, and Proboscidea-that is, ungulates. These herbivores included bison (Bison bison) on the North American plains, saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) on the Eurasian steppe, wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and zebra (Equus burchelli) on the African savanna, and the ecologically equivalent kangaroos (Macropodidae) on the Australian savanna. As a result of the post-industrial global expansion of cropland and cattle ranching, most grasslands grazed by Pleistocene megaherbivores were eliminated. Today, they are restricted to the world's few large grassland reserves that protect all seasonal ranges of the animals. In this article, we describe profound functional similarities between two of the most celebrated of these remaining habitats, the Serengeti ecosystem of east Africa and Yellowstone National Park (YNP) of the North American intermountain west, which previously have been considered to

The ecology and management of the Saiga antelope Saiga tatarica tatarica, a nomadic herding species of the desert, semi-desert and steppe ecosystems of Central Asia, are reviewed. The range area and population size of the Saiga in Kazakhstan have changed substantially since they were first described, declining rapidly through the nineteenth century to a low point in the 1920s, followed by recovery until the 1950s and subsequent stabilization. A detailed description is given of the Saiga’s habitat and the differences between the winter and summer pastures. The species feeds mainly on grasses, although herbs and shrubs are seasonally important. The migratory patterns of the species divide into directional seasonal migrations and less structured local movements. Group sizes are largest in the calving season and during the autumn migration. Harems are formed in early December. Fertility rates are high, with females giving birth in their first year of life, and routinely twinning thereafter. However, mortality rates are also high in years of drought and harsh winters. The major factors limiting populations include climate, parasites and diseases, predators, and anthropogenic factors. The major human influences are commercial hunting and poaching. Agriculture and habitat alteration are less important currently, although they were probably responsible for the division of the Kazakhstan population into three separate populations. The species was well managed in the Soviet period, with strong institutional structures. However, a new political era requires a re-evaluation of the Saiga’s needs, in the face of a growing threat from poaching.

A stochastic dynamic programming model for the optimal management of the saiga antelope is presented. The optimal hunting mortality rate and proportion of adult males in the harvest are found as functions of the size and structure of the saiga population before hunting. The effects of stochastic climatic variation on the population are taken into account in this model. It is shown that key assumptions must be made about the effects of the breeding sex ratio on female fecundity, and about whether poaching is occurring. If incorrect assumptions are made about either of these factors, the calculated optimal strategy can become severely suboptimal. A simple suboptimal decision rule that takes the population size and structure into account is shown to be more able to buffer against these factors than the optimal strategy, which has proved too complicated for analytical solution. The model predictions are robust to parameter changes.

At the end of 1950s the population of the saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) in the North-West Pre-Caspian region counted over 800,000 individuals. Estimates of 2008 suggested that about 18,000 saigas were left, in a reduced range area, and after the severe 2009–2010 winter the population has declined to only 8,000 animals. To understand the present conditions a detailed study was conducted using our own field observations (2003–2008), all available literature data over more than 50 years, and long-term data of several meteorological stations located in the area of saiga habitation. Results show that the main reasons for the catastrophic decline in saiga numbers were decreases in the number of adult males and in general fertility of the females. Juvenile mortality in recent years stayed within the limits of long-term fluctuations. The weight of newborn saigas does not differ (and presently is even higher) from that at the end of the 1950s. Comparison of our observations with data on fluctuations in average annual temperature and rainfall showed that there was no direct effect of climatic factors on the state of this population. Accordingly, in the North-West Pre-Caspian region additional measures should be urgently taken to secure the survival of this unique ungulate.

Mycobacterium paratuberculosis was isolated in low numbers from the small intestine and associated mesenteric lymph nodes of a saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) using routine culture techniques in spite of histologic evidence of high numbers of acid-fast bacteria in these tissues. Two newborn domestic sheep were fed the ground intestinal tissue containing acid-fast bacteria and the progression of the experimental disease was followed by fecal culture, immunodiffusion (AGID) and lymphocyte stimulation (LST) tests. One experimentally infected sheep developed progressive clinical illness 1 yr postinoculation. Few M. paratuberculosis were isolated from feces or tissues although an extensive granulomatous mycobacterial enteritis, lymphadenitis and lymphangitis were observed containing large numbers of typical acid-fast organisms. No clinical illness was observed in the second inoculated sheep after 18 mo of observation, although infection was demonstrated at necropsy. Both sheep developed AGID and LST reactions indicative of paratuberculosis. This study demonstrated that a difficult to culture isolate of M. paratuberculosis was responsible for paratuberculosis in captive wild ruminants and was transmissible to domestic sheep. Diagnosis of paratuberculosis in four of eight of the imported saiga antelope and in eleven of their 18 offspring indicates the importance of this disease in management of captive wild ruminants and the ease with which this organism can be transmitted.

This paper concerns certain ungulate species represented in 19 archaeological sites from the Aquitaine region of southwestern France; twelve of these sites have radiocarbon dates of from 15500 to 13500 BP. Species of concern include: Cervus elaphus L., Rangifer tarandus L., Bison priscus Boj. , Saiga tatarica L., Capra ibex or (and) Capra pyrenaica Schinz , Rupicapra rupicapra L. and Equus caballus L. Palynological and sedimentological analyses carried out conjointly with faunal studies provide data on late Pleistocene climates in the region. These indicate that the observed associations among ungulate species occurred under the widespread cold and dry conditions of the Dryas I phase, the last period when typical Wurmian steppic vegetation was present over most of the Aquitaine. Examination of ungulate spatial distributions provides evidence for each species environmental requirements. Ecological tolerances are especially narrow for the Saiga Antelope and for the Bouquetin.

Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) graze extensively on livestock pasture, potentially enabling transmission of a wide range of parasitic helminths between saigas and domestic ruminants. Thirty-six of the 38 species of helminth that have been found in saigas in Kazakhstan in the past have been found also in domestic livestock. We examined 133 saigas culled for meat in autumn 1997, and found three species of cestode and 12 nematodes (nine in the abomasum), but no trematodes or lungworms. The most abundant species were Marshallagia marshalli, Marshallagia mongolica, and Nematodirus gazellae in the abomasum, Nematodirus gazellae in the small intestine, and Skrjabinema ovis in the large intestine. There was no clear relationship between intensities of abomasal nematodes and body condition. Age-intensity patterns differed between species: N. gazellae intensities were highest in saigas around 2-3 yr old, and declined in older animals, whereas the intensity of Marshallagia spp. rose asymptotically with age. Fecal egg density was directly proportional to adult worm intensity across ages for Marshallagia spp., but only in young animals for N. gazellae. There was no evidence that helminths, at the intensities observed, adversely affect saiga populations. The host range of many of the parasites found is broad, and transmission between saigas and livestock in both directions might become important to agriculture and conservation as livestock numbers recover. Simplified sampling techniques used in this study, and statistical analysis based on bootstrapping, could prove useful in other parasitologic surveys of wildlife in remote areas.