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Fear-induced generalization of threats to noninimical stimuli is a behavioral tendency of humans to minimize exposure to potential threats. In human-carnivore conflict zones, people often generalize their fear of predation by obligate carnivores to nonobligate carnivores despite differences in species' predation rates. We investigated the effect of a perceived threat of large obligate carnivores to livestock on tolerance and perception of striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) in an area of high human-carnivore conflict. We surveyed 197 households through asemistructured questionnaire to determine people's perception and tolerance of striped hyenas in Sathyamangalam and Mudumalai Tiger Reserves after identification of the current distribution range of hyena determined through camera trap and sign surveys. Through the random forest algorithm, we modeled the level of tolerance of striped hyena as a function of loss of livestock to predation and from disease, the perceived threat of predation by hyena, and other socioeconomic attributes. Animal husbandry was a major source of income but was severely affected by livestock loss due to predation and disease. Sixty-nine percent of people were uncertain about predatory behavior of hyena; out of that, 23% reported a negative conservation attitude. Only 6 instances of hyena depredation on livestock and 2 on dogs were reported. Our model confirmed that economic instability associated with increased loss to predation and disease, livestock dependency, and a decrease in family annual income negatively affected people's tolerance of hyena. Perceptual uncertainty related to predatory behavior of hyena also negatively affected people's tolerance. In our study area, economic instability and perceptual uncertainty led to generalization of fear of large carnivores to a nonobligate predator. Such generalization may affect the attitude of people toward many other species. Understanding the role of economic instability and perceptual uncertainty should facilitate conservation of species, such as the hyena, that are vulnerable to false generalization.Generalización de las Amenazas Atribuidas a los Grandes Carnívoros en las Áreas con un Elevado Conflicto Humano-Fauna Resumen La generalización de las amenazas inducidas por el miedo a los estímulos no desfavorables es una tendencia del comportamiento humano para minimizar la exposición ante las amenazas potenciales. En las zonas de conflicto humano-carnívoros, las personas transfieren con frecuencia su miedo a los carnívoros obligados hacia los no obligados a pesar de las diferencias en las tasas de depredación de las espcies. Investigamos el efecto de la amenaza percibida que representan los grandes carnívoros obligados para el ganado sobre la tolerancia a y la percepción de la hiena rayada (Hyaena hyaena) en un área con un conflicto elevado entre humanos y carnívoros. Encuestamos a 197 hogares con un cuestionario semiestructurado para determinar la percepción y tolerancia que tienen las personas hacia la hiena rayada en las reservas de tigres de Satayamangalam y Mudumalai después de identificar la distribución actual de la hiena mediante cámaras trampa y censos de indicios. Modelamos el nivel de tolerancia a la hiena rayada con el algoritmo de bosque aleatorio como función de la pérdida de ganado por depredación o enfermedad, la amenaza percibida de la hiena como depredador y otros atributos socioeconómicos. La crianza de animales fue una gran fuente de ingresos aunque con severas afectaciones por la pérdida de ganado por depredación o enfermedad. El 69% de las personas tenían incertidumbre acerca del comportamiento de depredación de la hiena; de ese porcentaje, el 23% reportó una actitud negativa de conservación. En cuanto a las hienas, sólo se reportaron seis instancias de depredación de ganado y dos de perros. Nuestro modelo confirmó que la inestabilidad económica asociada con el incremento en las pérdidas por depredación y enfermedad, la dependencia por el ganado y una reducción en el ingreso anual familiar afectó negativamente la tolerancia que tienen las personas hacia las hienas. La incertidumbre percibida relacionada con el comportamiento de depredación de las hienas también afectó negativamente la tolerancia de las personas. La inestabilidad económica y la incertidumbre percibida derivaron en una transferencia del miedo a los grandes carnívoros hacia los depredadores no obligados en nuestra área de estudio. Dicha transferencia puede afectar la actitud de las personas hacia muchas otras especies. El conocimiento sobre el papel que tiene la inestabilidad económica y la incertidumbre percibida debería facilitar la conservación de especies que son vulnerables a las falsas generalizaciones, como es el caso de la hiena.人类在恐惧的诱发下, 具有泛化非有害刺激造成的威胁的行为倾向, 即要尽量减少暴露在潜在威胁中的机会。在人类与食肉动物冲突的地区, 尽管每个物种的捕食率不同, 但人们经常将对专性食肉动物捕食的恐惧泛化到非专性食肉动物之上。本研究调查了在一个人类与食肉动物高度冲突的地区, 人们对于大型专性食肉动物捕食家畜的感知威胁导致的对条纹鬣狗(Hyaena hyaena)容忍度和认知的影响。我们通过半结构化问卷调查了197个家庭, 以确定人们对印度Satayamangalam和Mudumalai老虎保护区中条纹鬣狗的认知和容忍度, 此前我们已通过红外相机和标志调查确定了鬣狗当前的分布范围。我们通过随机森林算法, 将对条纹鬣狗的容忍度作为家畜因捕食和疾病造成的损失、感知到的鬣狗捕食威胁, 以及其他社会经济属性的函数进行了建模。畜牧业是这些家庭主要的收入来源, 但由于捕食和疾病造成的家畜损失严重影响了收入。我们发现, 69%的受访者不能确定鬣狗的捕食行为;其中23%的人报告了消极的保护态度。然而, 受访者只报告了6起鬣狗攻击家畜和2起攻击狗的事件。我们的模型证实, 与捕食和疾病损失增加有关的经济不稳定性、对家畜的依赖, 以及家庭年收入的减少, 对于人们是否容忍鬣狗产生了负面影响。与鬣狗捕食行为有关的感知不确定性也对容忍度存在负面影响。在我们的研究地区, 经济不稳定性和感知不确定性导致人们对大型食肉动物的恐惧被泛化到非专性捕食者之中。这种泛化可能影响人们对许多其他物种的态度。理解经济不稳定性和感知不确定性的作用, 有助于保护那些容易被错误泛化的物种(如鬣狗)。.

Urbanisation is rapidly transforming natural landscapes with consequences for biodiversity. Little is documented on the response of African wildlife to urbanisation. We reviewed case studies of vertebrate species' responses to urbanisation in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa to determine trends. Connected habitat mosaics of natural and anthropogenic green spaces are critical for urban wildlife persistence. We present a novel modification to the final of three phases of the framework described by Evans et al. (2010), which documents this sequence for vertebrate species persistence, based on the perspective of our research. Species in suburbia exhibit an initial phase where behavioural and ecological flexibility, life-history traits and phenotypic plasticity either contribute to their success, or they stay at low numbers. Where successful, the next phase is a rapid increase in populations and distribution; anthropogenic food resources and alternate breeding sites are effectively exploited. The modified third phase either continues to spread, plateau or decline.

Urbanisation is rapidly transforming natural landscapes with consequences for biodiversity. Little is documented on the response of African wildlife to urbanisation. We reviewed case studies of vertebrate species' responses to urbanisation in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa to determine trends. Connected habitat mosaics of natural and anthropogenic green spaces are critical for urban wildlife persistence. We present a novel modification to the final of three phases of the framework described by Evans et al. (2010), which documents this sequence for vertebrate species persistence, based on the perspective of our research. Species in suburbia exhibit an initial phase where behavioural and ecological flexibility, life-history traits and phenotypic plasticity either contribute to their success, or they stay at low numbers. Where successful, the next phase is a rapid increase in populations and distribution; anthropogenic food resources and alternate breeding sites are effectively exploited. The modified third phase either continues to spread, plateau or decline.

Land-use, the extent of cover, and intra-guild competition with larger predators all influence habitat use by mesocarnivores. Understanding this is especially important for little-known mesocarnivore species. We investigated the occurrence of the relatively understudied honey badger (Mellivora capensis) in iSimangaliso Wetland Park (St. Lucia, South Africa), a Protected Area that covers approximately 700 km2 with forestry plantations (agroforestry) on its Western Shores and restored natural vegetation on its Eastern Shores and Western Shores. We used single-season camera-trap data from a grid of 118 trap stations surveying continuously for 24 days, and estimated the probability of occupancy and detection of honey badgers, and modelled the influence of surrounding land-use, habitat characteristics and presence of other predators on each estimate. Mean estimated probability of occupancy of honey badgers was 0.38 ± 0.08 and probability of detection was 0.12 ± 0.03, with a naive occupancy estimate of 0.25. Distance to water and higher number of trees in adjacent plantations influenced honey badger occupancy positively. Presence of leopard (Panthera pardus pardus) had a negative effect on detection probability of honey badger while presence of spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) positively influenced honey badger detection, indicating that the presence of individual predator species influenced honey badger habitat use in varying ways. We found a higher occurrence of honey badgers in Eucalyptus plantations than in natural habitat types. This suggests that human-modified landscapes may not always be detrimental to adaptable, or more habitat-generalised species that are able to exploit new habitat opportunities.

Globally with increased urban development, understanding spatial habitat requirements of urban-dwelling wildlife is increasingly important for conservation management. Consequently, we determined the factors that influence the presence of vervet monkeys ( Chlorocebus pygerythrus ) in urban landscapes. Firstly, we hypothesized that troop size is influenced by seasonality, residence type, proximity to water sources and food provisioning. Secondly, we hypothesized that the resting behaviour of vervet troops is influenced by natural factors, including the presence/absence of raptor nest(s)) and man-made structures including the distance to the nearest main road. Thirdly, we hypothesized that resting by vervet monkey troops would be influenced by the seasons, the distance to the nearest main road (due to the relative openness) and the residence type. Fourthly, we hypothesized that foraging by vervet monkey troops is influenced by food provisioning and bird feeders. Finally, we hypothesized that playing by vervet monkey troops are influenced by the presence/absence of a raptor nest(s), a dog(s) and the residency type. From June 2013 through May 2014 observations were conducted on vervet monkey troops in 20 suburban gardens in the Ethekwini and Msunduzi municipalities of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, following a standardized group scan sample method. The observation data were analyzed to determine population-level patterns of landscape use and key suburban landscape features influencing seasonal behaviour, troop size and sex ratios of vervet monkey troops. Mean troop size (29 ± 3.4 (SE) individuals) was influenced by female and juvenile numbers and sex ratio varied across study sites. Behavioural observations (foraging, grooming, playing) were more frequent during winter in gardens with high tree density, and a preference for visitation was found in gardens closer to roads, and where food was provisioned. Probability of foraging, grooming and playing was higher in gardens with greater canopy cover, however this decreased with increasing troop size. Probability of resting decreased with increasing distance from indigenous forest patches and roads. Gardens experienced high levels of raiding. Understanding vervet monkey spatial ecology within a transformed landscape contributes to determining sustainable ways to mitigate conflict and manage their populations in suburbia.

Globally, long-term research is critical to monitor the responses of tropical species to climate and land cover change at the range scale. Citizen science surveys can reveal the long-term persistence of poorly known nomadic tropical birds occupying fragmented forest patches. We applied dynamic occupancy models to 13 years (2002-2014) of citizen science driven presence/absence data on Cape parrot (Poicephalus robustus), a food nomadic bird endemic to South Africa. We modelled its underlying range dynamics as a function of resource distribution, and change in climate and land cover through the estimation of colonization and extinction patterns. The range occupancy of Cape parrot changed little over time (ψ = 0.75-0.83) because extinction was balanced by recolonization. Yet, there was considerable regional variability in occupancy and detection probability increased over the years. Colonizations increased with warmer temperature and area of orchards, thus explaining their range shifts southeastwards in recent years. Although colonizations were higher in the presence of nests and yellowwood trees (Afrocarpus and Podocarpus spp.), the extinctions in small forest patches (≤ 227 ha) and during low precipitation (≤ 41 mm) are attributed to resource constraints and unsuitable climatic conditions. Loss of indigenous forest cover, and artificial lake/water bodies increased extinction probabilities of Cape parrot. The land use matrix (fruit farms, gardens and cultivations) surrounding forest patches provides alternative food sources thereby facilitating spatiotemporal colonization and extinction in the human-modified matrix. Our models show that Cape parrots are vulnerable to extreme climatic conditions such as drought which is predicted to increase under climate change. Therefore, management of optimum sized high quality forest patches is essential for long-term survival of Cape parrot populations. Our novel application of dynamic occupancy models to long-term citizen science monitoring data unfolds the complex relationships between the environmental dynamics and range fluctuations of this food nomadic species. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Distributions of avian mutualists are affected by changes in biotic interactions and environmental conditions driven directly/indirectly by human actions. The range contraction of red‐billed oxpeckers (Buphagus erythrorhynchus) in South Africa is partly a result of the widespread use of acaracides (i.e., mainly cattle dips), toxic to both ticks and oxpeckers. We predicted the habitat suitability of red‐billed oxpeckers in South Africa using ensemble models to assist the ongoing reintroduction efforts and to identify new reintroduction sites for population recovery. The distribution of red‐billed oxpeckers was influenced by moderate to high tree cover, woodland habitats, and starling density (a proxy for cavity‐nesting birds) with regard to nest‐site characteristics. Consumable resources (host and tick density), bioclimate, surface water body density, and proximity to protected areas were other influential predictors. Our models estimated 42,576.88–98,506.98 km2 of highly suitable habitat (0.5–1) covering the majority of Limpopo, Mpumalanga, North West, a substantial portion of northern KwaZulu‐Natal (KZN) and the Gauteng Province. Niche models reliably predicted suitable habitat in 40%–61% of the reintroduction sites where breeding is currently successful. Ensemble, boosted regression trees and generalized additive models predicted few suitable areas in the Eastern Cape and south of KZN that are part of the historic range. A few southern areas in the Northern Cape, outside the historic range, also had suitable sites predicted. Our models are a promising decision support tool for guiding reintroduction programs at macroscales. Apart from active reintroductions, conservation programs should encourage farmers and/or landowners to use oxpecker‐compatible agrochemicals and set up adequate nest boxes to facilitate the population recovery of the red‐billed oxpecker, particularly in human‐modified landscapes. To ensure long‐term conservation success, we suggest that the effect of anthropogenic threats on habitat distributions should be investigated prior to embarking on a reintroduction program, as the habitat in the historical range may no longer be viable for current bird populations.

Identifying the primary causes affecting population densities and distribution of flagship species are necessary in developing sustainable management strategies for large carnivore conservation. We modeled drivers of spatial density of the common leopard (Panthera pardus) using a spatially explicit capture–recapture—Bayesian approach to understand their population dynamics in the Maputaland Conservation Unit, South Africa. We camera‐trapped leopards in four protected areas (PAs) of varying sizes and disturbance levels covering 198 camera stations. Ours is the first study to explore the effects of poaching level, abundance of prey species (small, medium, and large), competitors (lion Panthera leo and spotted hyenas Crocuta crocuta), and habitat on the spatial distribution of common leopard density. Twenty‐six male and 41 female leopards were individually identified and estimated leopard density ranged from 1.6 ± 0.62/100 km2 (smallest PA—Ndumo) to 8.4 ± 1.03/100 km2 (largest PA—western shores). Although dry forest thickets and plantation habitats largely represented the western shores, the plantation areas had extremely low leopard density compared to native forest. We found that leopard density increased in areas when low poaching levels/no poaching was recorded in dry forest thickets and with high abundance of medium‐sized prey, but decreased with increasing abundance of lion. Because local leopard populations are vulnerable to extinction, particularly in smaller PAs, the long‐term sustainability of leopard populations depend on developing appropriate management strategies that consider a combination of multiple factors to maintain their optimal habitats.

A diversity of indigenous and alien wildlife persists in suburbia, and provides residents with the opportunity to experience wildlife. Suburban gardens may serve as refugia and foraging grounds for many primate species allowing them to populate within a largely urbanized landscape. However, this has led to the increasing human interactions with them, resulting in conflict. Our study investigated the perceptions of suburban residents towards urban vervet monkeys Cercopithecus aethiops pygerythrus within the Msunduzi and Ethekwini municipalities, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We assessed how these related to the monkeys’ presence, activities and interactions in residential gardens, and the value of wildlife to residents. Assessment was conducted through an online questionnaire survey. General attitudes of residents to vervet monkeys were canvassed by assessing the respondents’ level of active engagement in wildlife watching within their properties. We analyzed 603 surveys submitted online using logistic regression and ordinal regression models. We ascertained that vervet monkeys were disliked by 29% of residents due to their aggressiveness, destructive behaviour in gardens and households, and perceived threat to native wildlife. Frequency and duration of foraging vervet monkeys in residents’ gardens was influenced by the presence of pet dogs, fruiting trees, tall trees (>2 m), ratio of indigenous to alien vegetation of gardens, residency type, and active and passive food provisioning. Despite conflict, the majority of respondents appreciated urban wildlife (67%) and actively engaged in wildlife watching (88%), emphasizing the importance of incorporating human dimension values into the management of urban biodiversity. Our study highlights the value of citizen science in providing mechanisms for identifying priority management and conservation efforts at the highly complex human-wildlife interface in an urbanized landscape.

Globally anthropogenic pressures on natural environments have caused species decline. Ground dwelling bird species declined in numbers because of loss of habitat and nesting sites. Protected areas (PAs) are generally perceived as areas with little disturbance; however, many have/are also subjected to anthropogenic land use change, such as agroforestry. Consequently, we investigated the presence and habitat use of a terrestrial avian species, the Crested Guinea-fowl (Guttera edouardi), in iSimangaliso Wetland Park, South Africa, a PA with varying land use change. We used single-season camera trap data from 99 trap stations across 24 days, and single season occupancy models to quantify the influence of habitat conversion and habitat characteristics on occupancy and detection probability of Crested Guinea-fowl. The average site occupancy (±standard error) and detection probability (±standard error) under the variable influence was 0.40 ± 0.07 and 0.43 ± 0.06 respectively from the top models. The most influential variables were natural forests, shrub cover, leaf litter, weed dominance, distance to water and narrow path. The natural forests, weed dominance and shrub cover positively influenced the occupancy of Crested Guinea-fowl. Leaf litter and distance to water had a positive influence on detection probability while narrow path had a negative influence. Our findings highlight the importance of natural forests to the survival of Crested Guinea-fowl in landscapes modified for agroforestry. Management initiatives are mandatory to ensure protection of adequate natural habitat for the conservation of forest specialists.

Urbanisation is one of the most rapidly expanding forms of landscape modification by humans and leads to large-scale loss and fragmentation of native habitat. This can alter the structure, composition and function of remnant habitat. Therefore, understanding the influence of both landscape and patch characteristics is important for understanding factors affecting the distribution of organisms in urbanised landscapes. Consequently, the aim of this study was to establish the responses of forest dwelling mammals to landscape and habitat structure in an urban-forest mosaic in the EThekwini Municipality Area, Durban, South Africa. Using presence and absence data of mammals from camera traps, we modelled occupancy of species using the occupancy modelling framework. The occupancy by Philantomba monticola was positively influenced by forest cover (%), woody cover (%), leaf litter (%) and stem density of large trees and negatively influenced by road density. For Tragelaphus sylvaticus, Potamochoerus larvatus and Hystix africaeaustralis, occupancy was influenced positively by forest cover (%), woody cover (%) and foliage height diversity and negatively influenced by road density. For Genetta tigrina and Chlorocebus pygerythrus, occupancy was positively influenced by leaf litter (%), woody cover (%), forest cover (%) and road density and negatively influenced by distance to road. Thus, species showed varying responses to landscape and habitat structural variables. Genetta tigrina and C. pygerythrus appeared less vulnerable to the loss of forest habitat and degradation in habitat quality whereas T. sylvaticus, P. larvatus and H. africaeaustralis showed strong negative responses to such changes. The semi-arboreal habits of G. tigrina and C. pygerythrus may be an important factor facilitating their adaptability to urban environments as they can move unimpededly across the urban landscape in search of resources. The diversity of responses suggests that landscape management approaches that consider the habitat requirements of multiple species are more likely to be successful in this landscape. We suggest that conservation efforts directed primarily towards the protection and restoration of structurally intact forest habitats is the most prudent strategy for the conservation of mammalian diversity in this landscape.

As urbanization increases, the identification of nest predators becomes important for avian conservation and management of urban wildlife communities. We investigated bird nest predation using artificial nests in urban areas of the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Province of South Africa. From June 2013 through February 2014 we installed seventy-five artificial nests in 25 suburban gardens in the Ethekwini and Msunduzi municipalities of KZN. Euplectes spp. nests were used and baited with two quail-sized, hand-made, silicon eggs. These were placed in residential gardens and monitored by camera traps for 2-weeks in winter, spring and summer respectively. Generally bird nesting occurs throughout the year in KZN’s subtropical climate, with some avoidance during the autumn season. Therefore, experiments were not conducted during autumn, as fresh nests were not available for use. Overall the rate of predation on artificial nests was 25 % (n = 19), with vervet monkeys Ceropithecus aethiops pygerythrus predating 20 % (n = 17) of the nests while domestic cats Felis catus predated 3 % (n = 2) of nests. Nest predation was significantly higher in the winter season, with 79 % of depredations occurring in winter (n = 15), 16 % in spring (n = 3) and 5 % in summer (n = 1), and in areas with less canopy cover. Our results suggest that vervet monkeys may have a negative impact on nesting birds in urban environments, however, in order to assess the rate of predation experiments on natural nests coupled with information on fledgling success is deemed necessary to investigate avian population declines.

The management of multi-functional landscapes warrants better knowledge of environment-richness associations at varying disturbance levels and habitat gradients. Intensive land-use patterns for agricultural purposes lead to fragmentation of natural habitat resulting in biodiversity loss that can be measured using landscape metrics to assess mammalian richness. Since carnivores and herbivores are likely to show different responses to disturbance, we calculated carnivore, non-carnivore, and total mammal species richness from camera surveys using a first order Jackknife Estimator. Richness was compared along a habitat gradient comprising coastal forest, Acacia thicket, and highland in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We used standardized OLS regression models to identify climatic and disturbance variables, and landscape metrics as predictors of species richness. The estimated total and non-carnivore species richness were highest in coastal forest, while carnivore species richness was highest in highland followed by coastal forest and Acacia thicket. Average monthly maximum temperature was a significant predictor of all richness groups, and precipitation of the wettest month and isothermality determined total and non-carnivore species richness, respectively. These climatic variables possibly limit species distribution because of physiological tolerance of the species. Total mammal richness was determined by mean shape (+) and habitat division (−) while diversity (+) and patch richness (−) explained carnivore species richness. Mean shape index (+) influenced non-carnivore richness. However, habitat division and patch richness negatively influenced total mammal richness. Though habitat patch size and contiguity had a weak positive prediction, these metrics demonstrated the importance of habitat connectivity for maintaining mammal richness. The identification of these climatic and landscape patterns is important to facilitate future landscape management for mammal conservation in forest-mosaics.

Identifying unique habitats that support intact mammal assemblages help to prioritize conservation areas. Over time, modifications of native habitats in multi-functional Protected Areas (PAs) can drive changes in mammal populations. We assessed mammalian richness across PA sizes and multi-species occupancy in various habitats, including plantations, in the Maputaland Conservation Unit, South Africa. We collected data from six camera-trap surveys (205 camera-trap stations) between 2013 and 2014 covering PAs that varied in size, habitat diversity and disturbance levels. We included eight habitat covariates for occupancy estimation and narrow vs. wider path as detection covariates. We applied the Royle–Nichols multi-session multi-species hierarchical model to estimate species richness and occupancy dynamics of 39 mammalian species for different PAs, while accounting for imperfect detection. Species richness increased with protected area size. Most large mammals were absent in the smallest PA. Detection probabilities for 90% of the species were 0.40) was estimated for 16 species in grassland and plantation, followed by woodland (15), sand forest (14), coastal lowland forest and dune forests (13 species each), Makatini clay thicket (12) and dry forest thicket (10). Plantation had higher mammal occupancy, presumably attributed to the edge effects of adjacent natural habitats, and the understory grass cover in abandoned and immature plantations. Our findings provided comprehensive inferences on community-wide assemblages for valuable management decision making.

Changes in habitat composition and structure along natural agricultural habitat gradient affect spatial ecology of carnivores at both intraspecific and interspecific levels. An important prerequisite for the conservation and management of habitat specialists is a sound understanding of how they use indigenous habitats within fragmented landscapes. We present the 1st comprehensive study on home range, overlap, and resource selection of 16 radiocollared servals ( Leptailurus serval ) in the Drakensberg Midlands, South Africa. Servals (11 males and 5 females) were livetrapped and radiotracked between May 2013 and August 2014 covering 4 seasons (winter, spring, summer, and autumn). Mean annual home range estimates (95% and 50% fixed kernel [FK], respectively) for males (38.07 km 2 ; 8.27 km 2 ) were generally larger than for females (6.22 km 2 ; 1.04 km 2 ). Although male core ranges varied slightly in spring, overall serval home ranges were stable across seasons. There was considerable intersexual home range overlap (> 85%), whereas intrasexual overlap was rare (< 10%). Home range size decreased with increase in age and less availability of wetland, while it increased in males at both levels (95% FK and 50% FK). For both sexes, Manley’s selection index indicated that natural habitats including wetlands and forest with bushland ranked higher than all other habitat classes. However, forested habitat was used approximately 2 times more frequently by males than females whereas cropland was avoided by both sexes. Overall, wetlands were ranked highest, followed by forest with bushland, grassland, plantations, and cropland in terms of serval resources selection. Our results emphasize that natural habitats, mainly wetlands and forests with bushland, are important predictors of spatiotemporal habitat use of servals in the agricultural mosaics of South Africa.

Body size in animals is an important trait affecting species niche differentiation and restricting similarity. Using camera-trap data over 2008–2010, we used photo-captures from 50 cameras spread throughout Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (Western Ghats, India) to assess the activity budgets of 21 mammal species ranging in body size from 1 kg to 2088 kg. Large carnivores were mostly cathemeral whereas small cat and civet species were purely nocturnal. Mongoose species were mainly diurnal possibly due to their terrestrial feeding habits and reduce competition with other sympatric small carnivores. All large and small-bodied herbivores were cathemeral and nocturnal respectively, whereas medium-sized herbivores were active during the day. Overall, small mammals tended to be mostly nocturnal, whereas large mammals were cathemeral mainly due to energy requirements and other ecological constraints. Body size showed significant negative relationship with mean vector length (clustering of activity in time) thus implying that the daily amount of time being active increased with body size. The shorter activity time (12 h) in small mammals resulted in higher mean vector length probably to utilize the available time to fulfil energy needs. The observed cathemeral activity in large mammals may be associated with travel over larger areas to acquire large quantities of food therefore they are active for a longer duration. Our results clearly support the allometric relationship between body size and activity budgets in mammals and its association with niche differentiation.

The conversion of wetlands and its associated habitat for farming, residential development and commercial purposes has led to many small disconnected patches of native vegetation surrounded by generally inhospitable human altered land uses. Such human interventions pose a serious threat to the survival of wetland dependent indicator species such as the serval ( Leptailurus serval ) in the Drakensberg Midlands of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. To address the effects of habitat fragmentation on serval space use we used GPS fixes of collared individuals for 100 days between May 2013 and January 2014. We tracked five females and eleven male servals with GPS-UHF collars. Fragmentation indices at the class level (wetland, forest with bushland, grassland and cropland) were measured within the collared serval's minimum convex polygon area (MCP) of home range. Serval use points and fragmentation indices were extracted to each sub-landscape unit of 2 km 2 falling within the MCP home range. The response of serval population to fragmentation indices was analyzed using generalized linear models at three levels: male, female and the overall population. We found that core area of wetland positively explained landscape use by servals. Effects of forest core area, forest proximity and patch richness were important for landscape use by male servals. Male and female serval use declined with increase in complex shapes of forest and grassland, wetland clumpiness for females and overall, and cropland patches for servals overall. Our results showed that wetland is a key determinant for the survival of male and female servals in fragmented landscapes therefore effective conservation of serval population demands adequate viable native habitat.

Population viability analysis is an important tool to assess the extinction risk in small populations of highly specialized primates. The blue-eyed black lemur (Eulemur flavifrons) is critically endangered with a restricted range in the north-western dry deciduous forest of Madagascar, where habitat fragmentation and loss of forest connectivity threaten its survival. We performed a population viability analysis (PVA) of this lemur in Ankarafa Forest in the Sahamalaza Peninsula National Park, north-western Madagascar, to determine the demographic parameters most influential for population persistence and to assess extinction probabilities. We conducted PVA analyses using different demographic parameters which characterize the species including reproduction, lifespan and population size using the software VORTEX for six scenarios with 100 iterations and simulated over 100 years. The simulations suggested the first extinction within 13 years when the percentage of habitat destruction increased up to 12%. Severe habitat destruction such as fire and logging was the major cause which led to the risk of population extinction. Conservation strategies, in particular measures to reduce habitat destruction, are proposed to ensure the survival of this critically endangered lemur.

Rigorous population studies on many small carnivores are lacking in India. Presence-absence models with habitat covariates were applied to estimate seasonal occupancy and abundance of nine small-carnivore species from camera-trap data in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (2010 and 2011). We deployed 25 camera-trap stations in the deciduous forest, 21 in the semi-evergreen forest and 26 in the dry thorn forest. In total, 7380 trap-nights yielded 448 photographs of small carnivores: jungle cat (n = 72), leopard cat (n = 6), rusty-spotted cat (n = 11), small Indian civet (n = 89), common palm civet (n = 37), brown palm civet (n = 20), stripe-necked mongoose (n = 66), ruddy mongoose (n = 96) and Indian grey mongoose (n = 51). In the dry season, rusty-spotted cat was the rarest carnivore with an average abundance (λmean) of 0.24 ± 0.26, while ruddy mongoose was the most abundant (λmean = 0.90 ± 0.40). In the wet season, leopard cat was the rarest species (λmean = 0.048 ± 0.041) while grey mongoose was the most abundant (λmean = 0.68 ± 0.35). Abundance of jungle cat, common palm civet, ruddy mongoose and grey mongoose increased in the dry thorn forest whereas in the dry season abundance of small Indian civet decreased in this forest type. Abundance of leopard cat and small Indian civet was not influenced by habitat in the wet season. Deciduous forest was positively associated with abundance of rusty-spotted cat. Deciduous and semi-evergreen forests had a positive effect on abundance of stripe-necked mongoose while the latter was a positive predictor of abundance and occupancy for brown palm civet. Improved modelling approaches can account for the spatio-temporal variation in habitat use of small carnivores occupying specialized niches in heterogeneous tropical forests of southern India.

Antler cycles are convenient external signs indicating internal changes in reproductive status of male deer. Antler phenology of chital (Axis axis) and sambar (Rusa unicolor) were studied in a deciduous habitat of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats, using vehicle transects for 2 successive years. Apparent breeding seasonality occurred with the majority of adult stags in hard antlers from May to mid October in chital (>87 %), and October to May in sambar (>68 %). Adult hard antler in chital correlated with mean group size, while sambar showed a weak correlation between adult hard antler and group size. Chitals prefer forming large groups at forest edges and open habitats while sambars prefer dense vegetation cover. Adult hard antlers in chital and sambar showed a weak relation to fawning since most adult females were in oestrus during the peak rutting season. Adult hard antlers in chital associated positively with rainfall and day length while sambar responded weakly to rainfall. We conclude that environmental variables determined species-specific mating strategies in the two deer species.

We used information from systematic camera trapping surveys to study activity patterns of sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats during November 2009 to April 2010.Overall 61 independent photographs were obtained from 2600 trap nights. Sloth Bears showed bimodal peaks activities; late evening to midnight and small peak during sunrise. The mean activity time was 21:54 plus or minus 00:46 hrs. Although sloth bears were active throughout the day they exhibited reduced activity during the hottest hours of the day. Sloth Bears might have reduced their activity during the day to avoid the intense heat.Our data demonstrate that use of camera traps in documenting activity patterns can be an effective tool for identifying biological questions of sloth bear ecology for future studies.

Top predators often have cascading effects on mesopredator communities by driving behavioural changes. Using camera-trapping surveys, we explored the site-detection probability of sympatric predators and temporal overlap and examined behavioural patterns to explore hypotheses of carnivore guild interactions between and within large and small predators in the presence/absence of lion (Panthera leo) in open and closed habitat cover. We used single-season two-species occupancy models to test inter-predator interactions at 205 camera sites spread across five Protected Areas of the Maputaland Conservation Unit, South Africa. These data showed the respective associations between the presence of large carnivores and smaller carnivores. We observed that leopard (Panthera pardus) and hyena (Crocuta crocuta) tended to avoid interference encounters, as they were less likely co-detected at the same sites. There was a decrease in detection of leopard and hyena as a function of lion presence. Small predators such as the group honey badger (Mellivora capensis)-striped polecat (Ictonyx striatus) and the slender mongoose (Herpestes sanguineus) were detected less often at cameras where leopards were detected. Detection probabilities of the group badger-polecat and slender mongoose were much higher in the closed habitat than in open habitat where leopards were detected. At camera sites where hyenas were detected, badger-polecat and genet (Genetta tigrina) detection probability was much higher in the closed habitat than open habitat. Slender mongoose overlapped less temporally with large predators while others did not. Our study showed that large predator guilds can affect the probability of detecting subordinate mesopredators; therefore, reintroduction of large carnivores can have a cascading effect on subordinate carnivores, and it is necessary to consider this effect when planning recovery programmes for carnivore conservation. We think this study is of importance and interest as top predators often shape mesopredator communities by inducing apparent avoidance behaviour based on associations between the presence of large carnivores and smaller carnivores. As a consequence, smaller predators use closed habitat to minimize the risk of larger predators due to intraguild interference interaction. We explored behavioural patterns of sympatric predators’ site detection probability and temporal overlap and examined hypotheses about carnivore guild interactions between leopard and spotted hyena, these two and small predators with and without lion in open and closed habitat cover. Reintroduction of one carnivore population can have cascading effects on the other, and this nature of consequences needs to be accounted when planning conservation or species recovery programmes. Therefore, we extended our study to explore these important aspects. Our study is novel as there are no studies documenting species interactions between/within large and small predators from co-occurrence patterns in South Africa.

Agricultural expansion has replaced many natural habitats and the landscape structure with potential benefits to certain wildlife species. Some of mesocarnivores widely use man-made habitats in agri-ecosystems that are devoid of large carnivores and often prey on livestock. We examined the space use and habitat relationships of radio-collared caracals Caracal caracal between May 2013 and December 2014 in the Drakensberg Midlands, South Africa, to identify suitable habitat for better management of caracals that are perceived as pests in these fragmented agricultural mosaic landscapes. Home ranges of males were bigger than those of females. Caracal movements increased more during the night than the daytime indicating avoidance of peak exposure time to human activities during the day in agricultural lands. Generalized linear mixed models showed that caracal space use increased with area availability of plantations and cultivations while their space use decreased with increasing altitude and area availability of forests. Our results showed that the modified habitat use over natural habitats and preference to altitude

We investigated dietary partitioning among tiger Panthera tigris, leopard Panthera pardus and dhole Cuon alpinus in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, India between January 2008 and April 2010 based on scat analyses and prey surveys. Scat analysis revealed that though the diet of the three predators consisted of 15 to 21 prey species, wild ungulates formed a major portion of their diet (88.4 to 96.7%). The three predators exhibited high diet overlap (> 61%). Prey availability, estimated from an effort of 473 km of line transects (n = 33) revealed high density of chital Axis axis (43.8 ± 10.7 (mean ± SE) individuals/km2), followed by langur Semnopithecus entellus (31.0 ± 3.8), gaur Bos gaurus (6.7 ± 1.5), giant squirrel Ratufa indica (6.4 ± 1.3), sambar Rusa unicolor (4.9 ± 0.96) and elephant Elephas maximus (4.9 ± 0.75). Mean biomass (kg/km2) of chital, gaur and sambar was 2058.6, 3015 and 656.6 respectively. In terms of biomass, tiger consumed mostly large sized prey (> 50 kg). Although leopard and dhole...

Ecology of Asia's smallest ungulate, the Indian chevrotain or mouse deer (Moschiola indica), has been poorly assessed. We used camera-trapping data to investigate habitat use of mouse deer in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve. Presence/absence data, collected under a systematic sampling framework, were used to test a priori hypotheses incorporating covariates believed to influence mouse deer occurrence and detection. The average occupancy rate of mouse deer in the study area was 0.56 (SE = 0.22) with a low detection probability (0.29, SE = 0.14). Model selection indicated that presence of moist bamboo brakes positively influenced while percent leaf litter negatively influenced mouse deer occupancy. Placement of camera-traps along narrow trails positively influenced detection probability of mouse deer. Future conservation efforts in India should focus on preservation of bamboo vegetation and dense forest cover which provide refuge for the mouse deer. Our results illustrate that occupancy can be suitable for monitoring elusive, forest dwelling, small ungulates; however, caution is needed when applying these models on small ranging species, as our study identifies the limitations in our survey design and its improvement for future monitoring which are applicable for similar-sized species across a range of habitats.

Of the threats facing sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) populations, habitat fragmentation is the most pressing. Although conservation requires protection of habitat, little is known about the factors governing sloth bear occurrence. We used camera-trapping data to investigate occupancy of sloth bears in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, an important conservation site in India during January–April 2010. Presence–absence data, collected under a systematic sampling framework, were used to test a priori hypotheses incorporating covariates believed to influence sloth bear occurrence. The estimated occupancy of sloth bears in the study area was 0.83 (SE = 0.01) with a detection probability of 0.23 (SE = 0.07). We found that no model with covariates was as strongly supported as the null model, suggesting that covariates we chose were relatively weak predictors of use. That said, our results suggested that sloth bear use was associated with deciduous forests; weaker evidence was found for association with termit...

Spatio-temporal partitioning is a viable mechanism for minimizing resource competition among sympatric species. The occurrence of sympatric large carnivores – tiger Panthera tigris, leopard Panthera pardus and dhole Cuon alpinus – in forests of the Indian subcontinent is complemented with high dietary overlap. We characterized temporal and spatial patterns of large carnivores with major prey species using photo-captures from 50 camera trap stations in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats during 2008–2010. We tested whether major prey species' activity and spatial use acted as drivers for coexistence among large carnivores. Tiger exhibited cathemeral activity in the night and is spatially correlated with sambar and gaur, supporting hypotheses related to large-sized prey. Leopard was active throughout the day and is spatially correlated with almost all prey species with no active separation from tiger. Dhole exhibited diurnal activity and spatial use in relation to chital and avoided felids to a certain extent. Leopard exhibited spatial correlation with tiger and dhole, while tiger did not correlate with dhole. Leopard exhibited relatively broader temporal and spatial tolerance due to its generalist nature, which permits opportunistic exploitation of resources. This supports the hypothesis that predators actively used areas at the same time as their principal prey species depending upon their body size and morphological adaptation. We conclude that resource partitioning in large carnivores by activity and spatial use of their principal prey governs spatio-temporal separation in large carnivores.

Knowledge of the social structure of a population is important for a range of fundamental and applied purposes. Group characteristics and population structure of chital ( Axis axis ) and sambar ( Rusa unicolor ) were studied in a deciduous habitat of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats, India, during 2008–2009. Vehicle transects were monitored monthly to gather information on group–size and age–sex composition of chital and sambar. The average mean group size and crowding for chital and sambar was 13.1 ± 0.5 ( n = 1020), 3.6 ± 0.2 ( n = 377) and 33.3, 11.0 respectively. The average adult male:adult female:fawn ratio was 63.4:100:22.3 ( n = 9391) and 43.9:100:23.7 ( n = 1023) in chital and sambar respectively. The mean group size of chital and sambar varied significantly between seasons (Kruskal–Wallis test, p =

Density of tiger Panthera tigris and leopard Panthera pardus was estimated using photographic capture–recapture sampling in a tropical deciduous forest of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, southern India, from November 2008 to February 2009. A total of 2,000 camera trap nights for 100 days yielded 19 tigers and 29 leopards within an intensive sampling area of 107 km2. Population size of tiger from closed population estimator model Mb Zippin was 19 tigers (SE = ±0.9) and for leopards Mh Jackknife estimated 53 (SE = ±11) individuals. Spatially explicit maximum likelihood and Bayesian model estimates were 8.31 (SE = ±2.73) and 8.9 (SE = ±2.56) per 100 km2 for tigers and 13.17 (SE = ±3.15) and 13.01 (SE = ±2.31) per 100 km2 for leopards, respectively. Tiger density for MMDM models ranged from 6.07 (SE = ±1.74) to 9.72 (SE = ±2.94) per 100 km2 and leopard density ranged from 13.41 (SE = ±2.67) to 28.91 (SE = ±7.22) per 100 km2. Spatially explicit models were more appropriate as they handle information at capture locations in a more specific manner than some generalizations assumed in the classical approach. Results revealed high density of tiger and leopard in Mudumalai which is unusual for other high density tiger areas. The tiger population in Mudumalai is a part of the largest population at present in India and a source for the surrounding Reserved Forest.

Due to their secretive habits, predicting the pattern of spatial distribution of small carnivores has been typically challenging, yet for conservation management it is essential to understand the association between this group of animals and environmental factors. We applied maximum entropy modeling (MaxEnt) to build distribution models and identify environmental predictors including bioclimatic variables, forest and land cover type, topography, vegetation index and anthropogenic variables for six small carnivore species in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve. Species occurrence records were collated from camera-traps and vehicle transects during the years 2010 and 2011. We used the average training gain from forty model runs for each species to select the best set of predictors. The area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristic plot (ROC) ranged from 0.81 to 0.93 for the training data and 0.72 to 0.87 for the test data. In habitat models for F. chaus, P. hermaphroditus, and H. smithii "distance to village" and precipitation of the warmest quarter emerged as some of the most important variables. "Distance to village" and aspect were important for V. indica while "distance to village" and precipitation of the coldest quarter were significant for H. vitticollis. "Distance to village", precipitation of the warmest quarter and land cover were influential variables in the distribution of H. edwardsii. The map of predicted probabilities of occurrence showed potentially suitable habitats accounting for 46 km(2) of the reserve for F. chaus, 62 km(2) for V. indica, 30 km(2) for P. hermaphroditus, 63 km(2) for H. vitticollis, 45 km(2) for H. smithii and 28 km(2) for H. edwardsii. Habitat heterogeneity driven by the east-west climatic gradient was correlated with the spatial distribution of small carnivores. This study exemplifies the usefulness of modeling small carnivore distribution to prioritize and direct conservation planning for habitat specialists in southern India.

The individual based body condition assessment is the most meaningful method when applied as an early indicator of the impact of management actions and health status of wild elephants. The body condition evaluation of wild Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) was studied within 107 km2 area covering deciduous forest of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats from February 2008 to December 2009. Overall vehicle drive of 3740 km yielded 1622 body condition assessments. A higher percentage of adult male and female were either in poor or medium condition during the dry season compared to the wet season. The proportion of adult female body condition was found to be poor compared to adult males. This might be due to less availability of nutritional food during the dry season and since elephant calving occurred throughout the year in Mudumalai, nutritional stress in lactating females could have resulted in their poor body condition. The aging factor could also be one of the reasons where either medium/poor condition was noticed mainly in adult elephants. It is suggested that long-term monitoring of body condition evaluation should be carried out not only in Asiatic elephant but even for several other wild ungulates.