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There were errors in the name of author Laszlo G. Nagy and in affiliation no. 31 in the original publication. The original article has been corrected.

The cryptic lifestyle of most fungi necessitates molecular identification of the guild in environmental studies. Over the past decades, rapid development and affordability of molecular tools have tremendously improved insights of the fungal diversity in all ecosystems and habitats. Yet, in spite of the progress of molecular methods, knowledge about functional properties of the fungal taxa is vague and interpretation of environmental studies in an ecologically meaningful manner remains challenging. In order to facilitate functional assignments and ecological interpretation of environmental studies we introduce a user friendly traits and character database FungalTraits operating at genus and species hypothesis levels. Combining the information from previous efforts such as FUNGuild and FunFun together with involvement of expert knowledge, we reannotated 10,210 and 151 fungal and Stramenopila genera, respectively. This resulted in a stand-alone spreadsheet dataset covering 17 lifestyle related traits of fungal and Stramenopila genera, designed for rapid functional assignments of environmental studies. In order to assign the trait states to fungal species hypotheses, the scientific community of experts manually categorised and assigned available trait information to 697,413 fungal ITS sequences. On the basis of those sequences we were able to summarise trait and host information into 92,623 fungal species hypotheses at 1% dissimilarity threshold. Fungal traits · Trophic modes · Function · Guild · Bioinformatics · High-throughput sequencing · Community ecology

Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Antarctica, Cladosporium arenosum from marine sediment sand. Argentina, Kosmimatamyces alatophylus (incl. Kosmimatamyces gen. nov.) from soil. Australia, Aspergillus banksianus, Aspergillus kumbius, Aspergillus luteorubrus, Aspergillus malvicolor and Aspergillus nanangensis from soil, Erysiphe medicaginis from leaves of Medicago polymorpha, Hymenotorrendiella communis on leaf litter of Eucalyptus bicostata, Lactifluus albopicri and Lactifluus austropiperatus on soil, Macalpinomyces collinsiae on Eriachne benthamii, Marasmius vagus on soil, Microdochium dawsoniorum from leaves of Sporobolus natalensis, Neopestalotiopsis nebuloides from leaves of Sporobolus elongatus, Pestalotiopsis etonensis from leaves of Sporobolus jacquemontii, Phytophthora personensis from soil associated with dying Grevillea mccutcheonii. Brazil, Aspergillus oxumiae from soil, Calvatia baixaverdensis on soil, Geastrum calycicoriaceum on leaf litter, Greeneria kielmeyerae on leaf spots of Kielmeyera coriacea. Chile, Phytophthora aysenensis on collar rot and stem of Aristotelia chilensis. Croatia, Mollisia gibbospora on fallen branch of Fagus sylvatica. Czech Republic, Neosetophoma hnaniceana from Buxus sempervirens. Ecuador, Exophiala frigidotolerans from soil. Estonia, Elaphomyces bucholtzii in soil. France, Venturia paralias from leaves of Euphorbia paralias. India, Cortinarius balteatoindicus and Cortinarius ulkhagarhiensis on leaf litter. Indonesia, Hymenotorrendiella indonesiana on Eucalyptus urophylla leaf litter. Italy, Penicillium taurinense from indoor chestnut mill. Malaysia, Hemileucoglossum kelabitense on soil, Satchmopsis pini on dead needles of Pinus tecunumanii. Poland, Lecanicillium praecognitum on insects' frass. Portugal, Neodevriesia aestuarina from saline water. Republic of Korea, Gongronella namwonensis from freshwater. Russia, Candida pellucida from Exomias pellucidus, Heterocephalacria septentrionalis as endophyte from Cladonia rangiferina, Vishniacozyma phoenicis from dates fruit, Volvariella paludosa from swamp. Slovenia, Mallocybe crassivelata on soil. South Africa, Beltraniella podocarpi, Hamatocanthoscypha podocarpi, Coleophoma podocarpi and Nothoseiridium podocarpi (incl. Nothoseiridium gen. nov.)from leaves of Podocarpus latifolius, Gyrothrix encephalarti from leaves of Encephalartos sp., Paraphyton cutaneum from skin of human patient, Phacidiella alsophilae from leaves of Alsophila capensis, and Satchmopsis metrosideri on leaf litter of Metrosideros excelsa. Spain, Cladophialophora cabanerensis from soil, Cortinarius paezii on soil, Cylindrium magnoliae from leaves of Magnolia grandiflora, Trichophoma cylindrospora (incl. Trichophoma gen. nov.) from plant debris, Tuber alcaracense in calcareus soil, Tuber buendiae in calcareus soil. Thailand, Annulohypoxylon spougei on corticated wood, Poaceascoma filiforme from leaves of unknown Poaceae. UK, Dendrostoma luteum on branch lesions of Castanea sativa, Ypsilina buttingtonensis from heartwood of Quercus sp. Ukraine, Myrmecridium phragmiticola from leaves of Phragmites australis. USA, Absidia pararepens from air, Juncomyces californiensis (incl. Juncomyces gen. nov.) from leaves of Juncus effusus, Montagnula cylindrospora from a human skin sample, Muriphila oklahomaensis (incl. Muriphila gen. nov.)on outside wall of alcohol distillery, Neofabraea eucalyptorum from leaves of Eucalyptus macrandra, Diabolocovidia claustri (incl. Diabolocovidia gen. nov.)from leaves of Serenoa repens, Paecilomyces penicilliformis from air, Pseudopezicula betulae from leaves of leaf spots of Populus tremuloides. Vietnam, Diaporthe durionigena on branches of Durio zibethinus and Roridomyces pseudoirritans on rotten wood. Morphological and culture characteristics are supported by DNA barcodes.

High-throughput sequencing technologies using amplicon approaches have changed the way that studies investigating fungal distribution are undertaken. These powerful and time-efficient technologies have the potential for the first time to accurately map fungal distributions across landscapes or changes in diversity across ecological or biological gradients of interest. There is no requirement for a fungus to form a fruiting body to be detected, and both culturable and nonculturable organisms can be detected. Here we use high-throughput amplicon sequencing from bulk DNA extracts to test the impact that biases associated with culture-based methods had on an earlier study that compared the influence of site and host on fungal diversity in Nothofagaceae forests in New Zealand. Both detection methods sampled tissue from the same set of symptomless, living leaves. We found that both the culturing and high-throughput approaches show that host is a stronger driver of fungal community structure than site, but that both methods have some taxonomic biases. We also found that the individual trees selected for high-throughput sampling can impact the alpha-diversity detected and through this could potentially affect subsequent analyses based on a comparison of this diversity.

Deterministic and stochastic factors interact to generate biogeographic patterns in fungal communities, challenging efforts to predict which fungal assemblages will develop in association with introduced plants. The coastal dune grass Ammophila arenaria has been moved around the world. We sampled A. arenaria roots in its native range in the United Kingdom, and in Australia and New Zealand where it is invasive. The co-occurring native dune grass Leymus arenarius was also sampled in the United Kingdom, and the native dune grass Spinifex sericeus was sampled in Australia and New Zealand. A. arenaria associates with root fungal communities in its invasive range that are richer than those in the United Kingdom, and richer than those in co-occurring native grasses, demonstrating that exotic plants are not necessarily depauperate in fungal associates. Most of the dominant OTUs associating with A. arenaria were shared among all three geographic regions. However, community composition varied among regions, with differences in temperature, nitrogen and pH correlating with community change. Within regions, community composition varied among dunes, although the majority of sequences obtained were in OTUs that were detected in multiple dunes. Host plant species identity influenced fungal community composition, although the majority of the data were in OTUs that were shared between hosts. While the roots sampled appeared healthy, many of the dominant fungi recovered are potentially pathogenic. This study demonstrates that many fungi are widely dispersed, and that introduced plants are likely to associate with functionally diverse fungal communities that include species from their native ranges. However root-associated fungal community composition is variable, even at regional and local scales in a common plant in a common environment.

The Landcare Research collections of biological specimens and their associated databases provide an essential resource for local and international researchers, administrators of New Zealand’s plant-disease-related biosecurity system, border control agencies and non-professional citizen scientists. This article focuses on data provided for New Zealand’s non-lichenised fungi and plant pathogenic bacteria, through the NZFungi nomenclatural and bibliographic database and the associated specimen databases for the PDD fungarium and International Collection of Microorganisms from Plants culture collection. A brief history of the development of the databases is provided, along with the resources used to deliver the data to users. The data is managed through an enterprise data management system rather than an off-the-shelf product, using international standards to allow exchange of data with other providers such as GBIF, Index Fungorum, StrainInfo and Species 2000.

This is the first comprehensive survey of the species diversity of Trichoderma for a region within the temperate Southern Hemisphere. New Zealand makes an ideal target for such a survey because of the extensive historical collections of this genus from both native and human-modified ecosystems. From the 320 Trichoderma strains sequenced for the translation elongation factor-1α (tef1α) gene, in addition to the names associated with voucher specimens at the New Zealand Fungarium (PDD, Landcare Research), we recognise 71 Trichoderma species as present in New Zealand. Thirty-two species are reported for the first time from New Zealand and 14 of these appear to represent undescribed taxa. The New Zealand species are positioned across most Trichoderma clades, with terminal lineages related to T. viride, T. koningii and T. harzianum well represented. Of the 14 undescribed species, Trichoderma sp. “atroviride B”, a sister species to T. atroviride s.s., was the most commonly recovered species. Records of several species known only from fungarium specimens could not be confirmed by DNA analysis. Populations of Trichoderma in New Zealand are likely to represent a mixture of ancient indigenous lineages, more recent natural introductions, and species introduced as a result of human-mediated dispersal. Twenty-three Trichoderma species have been reported only from New Zealand or other Southern Hemisphere locations. The diversity of Trichoderma species in New Zealand, their phylogenetic relationships, distribution, ecology, and possible origins are discussed in this paper.

Ectomycorrhizal fungi are increasingly recognized as invasive species. Invasive ectomycorrhizal fungi can be toxic to humans, may compete with native, edible or otherwise valuable fungi, facilitate the co-invasion of trees, and cause major changes in soil ecosystems, but also have positive effects, enabling plantation forestry and, in some cases, becoming a valuable food source. Land-managers are interested in controlling and removing invasive fungi, but there are few available strategies for management and none are based on robust scientific evidence. Nonetheless, despite the absence of relevant experiments, we suggest that knowledge of the fundamental ecology of fungi can help guide strategies. We review the literature and suggest potential strategies for prevention, for slowing the spread of invasive fungi, for eradication, and for long-term management. In many cases the most appropriate strategy will be species and context (including country) specific. In order to effectively address the problems posed by invasive ectomycorrhizal fungi, land managers and scientists need to work together to develop and robustly test control and management strategies.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are components of coastal dune ecosystems around the globe where they provide a range of benefits to plants. The diversity and structure of AMF communities within these ecosystems, however, are poorly known. This study presents the first report of an AMF community in a New Zealand dune. Root samples were collected from the grass Spinifex sericeus R. Br., which dominates dunes of the North Island of New Zealand, along a 90 m transect at Anawhata Beach. Spores were also collected from here. The AMF community within the roots was surveyed using 454 sequencing of the SSU gene region. Spores were identified by their morphology, and sequenced. The 22 operational taxonomic units recognised following the high throughput sequencing formed a phylogenetically diverse community, including at least 7 genera across the Glomerales and Diversisporales, with an additional genus detected by the spore investigation. Some root and spore derived sequences generated close BLAST matches to AMF from distant countries while others represent previously unknown biodiversity. Spore morphology also suggests undescribed AMF are present. High diversity was found within the genera Rhizophagus and Racocetra, and within a clade with no matches to a described genus. Spatial heterogeneity was observed, with taxonomic composition changing over distances of only 30 m.

The behaviour and risk associated with wood-inhabiting saprobic fungi introduced through trade is poorly understood. We used the cosmopolitan species Schizophyllum commune, considered a biosecurity risk in New Zealand, as a case study to test the potential for naturalization of alien strains/populations of wood-inhabiting saprobic fungi to occur. Phylogenetic analysis of the intergenic spacer 1 region was undertaken to determine the origin of New Zealand samples and one Cook Islands sample from the three known globally geographically distinct clades: North/Central America (NAM); South America (SAM); European/Asia/Australia (EAS). All New Zealand S. commune sequences fall within the EAS clade in two distinct groups with four haplotypes (Ia, Ib, IIb and IIa), with no evidence of naturalization of individuals from the NAM and SAM clades. The diversity of the haplotypes can be explained by two natural dispersal events in pre-human times. Ensuring timber is sufficiently treated will prevent alien populations p...

Novel associations between plants and pathogens can have serious impacts on managed and natural ecosystems world-wide. The introduction of alien plants increases the potential for biogeographically novel plant-pathogen associations to arise when pathogens are transmitted from native to alien plant species and vice versa. We quantified biogeographically novel associations recorded in New Zealand over the last 150 yr between plant pathogens (fungi, oomycetes and plasmodiophorids) and vascular plants. We examined the extent to which taxonomic similarity, pathogen traits, contact opportunity and sampling effort could explain the number of novel associates for host and pathogen species. Novel associations were common; approximately one-third of surveyed plants and pathogens were recorded with at least one biogeographically novel associate. Native plants had more alien pathogens than vice versa. Taxonomic similarity between the native and alien flora and the total number of recorded associations (a measure of sampling effort) best explained the number of novel associates among species. The frequency of novel associations and the importance of sampling effort as an explanatory variable emphasize the need for effective monitoring and risk assessment tools to mitigate the potential environmental and economic impact of novel pathogen associations.

A review is provided of the current state of understanding of Colletotrichum systematics, focusing on species-level data and the major clades. The taxonomic placement of the genus is discussed, and the evolution of our approach to species concepts and anamorph-teleomorph relationships is described. The application of multilocus technologies to phylogenetic analysis of Colletotrichum is reviewed, and selection of potential genes/loci for barcoding purposes is discussed. Host specificity and its relation to speciation and taxonomy is briefly addressed. A short review is presented of the current status of classification of the species clusters that are currently without comprehensive multilocus analyses, emphasising the orbiculare and destructivum aggregates. The future for Colletotrichum biology will be reliant on consensus classification and robust identification tools. In support of these goals, a Subcommission on Colletotrichum has been formed under the auspices of the International Commission on Taxonomy of Fungi, which will administer a carefully curated barcode database for sequence-based identification of species within the BioloMICS web environment.

The diversity and distribution of fungal endophytes in the leaves of four podocarps (Dacrydium cupressinum, Prumnopitys ferruginea, Dacrycarpus dacrydioides, and Podocarpus totara, all Podocarpaceae) and an angiosperm (Kunzea ericoides, Myrtaceae) occurring in close stands were studied. The effects of host species, locality, and season on endophyte assemblages were investigated. Host species was the major factor shaping endophyte assemblages. The spatial separation of sites and seasonal differences played significant but lesser roles. The mycobiota of each host species included both generalist and largely host-specialised fungi. The host-specialists were often observed at low frequencies on some of the other hosts. There was no clear evidence for family-level specialisation across the Podocarpaceae. Of the 17 species found at similar frequencies on several of the podocarp species, 15 were found also on Kunzea. Many of the endophytes isolated appear to represent species of fungi not previously recognised from New Zealand.

We present a 6-gene, 420-species maximum-likelihood phylogeny of Ascomycota, the largest phylum of Fungi. This analysis is the most taxonomically complete to date with species sampled from all 15 currently circumscribed classes. A number of superclass-level nodes that have previously evaded resolution and were unnamed in classifications of the Fungi are resolved for the first time. Based on the 6-gene phylogeny we conducted a phylogenetic informativeness analysis of all 6 genes and a series of ancestral character state reconstructions that focused on morphology of sporocarps, ascus dehiscence, and evolution of nutritional modes and ecologies. A gene-by-gene assessment of phylogenetic informativeness yielded higher levels of informativeness for protein genes (RPB1, RPB2, and TEF1) as compared with the ribosomal genes, which have been the standard bearer in fungal systematics. Our reconstruction of sporocarp characters is consistent with 2 origins for multicellular sexual reproductive structures in Ascomycota, once in the common ancestor of Pezizomycotina and once in the common ancestor of Neolectomycetes. This first report of dual origins of ascomycete sporocarps highlights the complicated nature of assessing homology of morphological traits across Fungi. Furthermore, ancestral reconstruction supports an open sporocarp with an exposed hymenium (apothecium) as the primitive morphology for Pezizomycotina with multiple derivations of the partially (perithecia) or completely enclosed (cleistothecia) sporocarps. Ascus dehiscence is most informative at the class level within Pezizomycotina with most superclass nodes reconstructed equivocally. Character-state reconstructions support a terrestrial, saprobic ecology as ancestral. In contrast to previous studies, these analyses support multiple origins of lichenization events with the loss of lichenization as less frequent and limited to terminal, closely related species.

Hypocreopsis amplectens is distinguished from other Hypocreopsis species by its 3–4‐spored asci and multiseptate, rough‐walled ascospores. As the asci mature it is common for one spore to abort or for adjacent spores to fuse. This fungus has been referred to as Hypocreopsis sp. and Hypocreopsis sp. ‘Nyora’ in the Australian literature. In Victoria, Australia, H. amplectens has been classified as “vulnerable” under the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988, and the Nyora Flora and Fauna Reserve was created partly because of its occurrence there. Despite intensive surveys it is still known from only three sites in Australia. In New Zealand it is known from a single collection made more than 20 years ago in Nothofagus forest at a site visited regularly by mycologists. Its status as a rare fungus makes it eligible for inclusion on national threat status lists in Australia and New Zealand.

An annotated list is provided of 450 taxa of fungi (including oomycetes and myxomycetes) that have been recorded in New Zealand in close association with teatree, that is, species of Kunzea and Leptospermum. Nearly all records refer to fungi growing with K. ericoides (kanuka) or L. scoparium (manuka), as ectomycorrhizal mycobionts, endophytes, pathogens, or as saprobes causing decay of wood and leaves. The only records of fungi specific to another taxon are those of the mycorrhizal genus Pisolithus, which grows in association with K. ericoides var. microflora in the central North Island thermal areas. The list has been compiled from data associated with specimens held in the New Zealand Fungal Herbarium (PDD) and in Herbarium NZ‐FRI‐M, and from the literature. Comments on the distribution of individual fungi within New Zealand, or on the occurrence of fungi on other plant substrata in New Zealand, are supported by information in the New Zealand Fungi website. Communities dominated by teatree are ...

This paper discusses the role of taxonomy in understanding the epidemiology of fruit rotting diseases and in determining the biosecurity status of the fungi associated with those diseases. The taxonomy of most highly specialised fruit-rotting pathogens is well understood, but some degree of uncertainty or confusion applies to the taxonomy of many less specialised pathogens. The taxonomic lumping of morphologically similar but genetically and biologically distinct taxa often confounds our ability to understand diseases, frustrates the interpretation of research data, and can result in misinformation about biosecurity status. Such unspecialised pathogens are widespread in New Zealand, but whether they cause a problem in a specifi c orchard depends on environmental conditions, management of the orchard, and host plant susceptibility. As management practices and preferred cultivars change, so does the spectrum of these low-specifi city taxa that cause disease problems. Five examples illustrate the need for unambiguous taxonomy to facilitate more effective control and management strategies of plant pathogens. Accurate identifi cation allows a clear understand the biology of the pathogens and subsequently the epidemiology of their associated diseases.

A brief account of fungi associated with kauri (Agathis australis) in New Zealand is followed by an annotated listing of all fungi known to grow on living or dead parts of this endemic tree. Records have been gleaned mainly from the New Zealand Fungal Herbarium (PDD), Herbarium of Forest Research (NZFRI(M)), and the literature. The fungi include few pathogens, mainly Phytophthora spp., and few agarics, as Agathis does not form ectomycorrhizae. Most fungi associated with A. australis are saprobes found on dead and fallen wood and litter. A total of 189 named species of fungi and 75 species identified only to genus, distributed within 199 genera, have been recorded. Many of the fungi are commonly found on other plant substrata within New Zealand, or elsewhere. Nineteen species have been described with A. australis as the type substratum. These species are saprobes and, apart from the Australasian endemic, Heterobasidion araucariae, all are currently considered to be endemic to New Zealand. Of these...

Three leaf‐inhabiting discomycetes common in New Zealand forests are described as new species in the genus Moellerodiscus. Two of the species occur on fallen leaves of Coprosma—M. coprosmae is found throughout the country, most commonly on C. robusta; M. microcoprosmae is found from Greymouth northward, only on C. grand‐ifolia. The third species, M. griseliniae, is found on fallen leaves of Griselinia littoralis from Wellington southward. Rutstroemia macrospora (= Ciboria peckiana) is reported from New Zealand for the first time. A short discussion is provided on generic concepts amongst Sclerotiniaceae and Rutstroemiaceae.

An annotated list is provided of 906 taxa of fungi (including oomycetes and myxomycetes) which have been recorded in New Zealand in close association with the five endemic taxa of Nothofagus (southern beech), as ectomycorrhizal mycobionts, pathogens, or saprobes causing decay of wood and leaves. The list has been compiled from data associated with specimens held in Herbarium PDD and in Herbarium NZFRI(M), and from the literature. Nothofagus forests are an important conservation resource, and a vast storehouse for New Zealand fungi; approximately 35% of the known New Zealand agaric mycota are associated with Nothofagus, and 50% of the known polypore species. Of the 226 named species of ectomycorrhizal fungi found in New Zealand beech forests (205 agarics, 19 Aphyllophorales — clavarioid, hydnoid, etc., 1 as‐comycete, 1 mitosporic fungus), about 90% are native, with most of these being endemic. Six mycorrhizal agaric genera are especially well represented: Amanita (11 species), Cortinarius (57 spet...

Six species of Torrendiella are described and illustrated from Nothofagus, and a key is provided for their identification. T. madsenii occurs on wood in Australia, New Zealand, and southem South America, and although its host range is uncertain, may it be confined to Nothofagus. The other five species form fruiting bodies on fallen leaves, are restricted to Nothofagus, and all are described here as new. Two of these species occur only in southem South America, T. andina (on N. betuloides and N. dombeyi) and T. grisea (on N. dombeyi). Three species occur only in New Zealand, T. brevisetosa (on N. menziesii), T. cannibalensis (on N. menziesii), and T. dingleyae (on N. fusca, N. menziesii, N. solandri var. cliffortioides, and N. truncata). The occurrence of an additional species on N. cunninghamii hm Australia is noted, but it is not formally described because of lack of good material. Torrendiella is accepted as a member of the Sclerotiniaceae, distinct from Zoellneria. It is characterised by the p...

Descriptions and illustrations are provided for seven species of fungi associated with tar‐spot‐like symptoms on living Nothofagus leaves in New Zealand. The fungi treated are Trabutia nothofagi Syd. and its anamorph Baeumleria nothofagi (Henn.) Petr. & Syd., another Trabutia sp. (which is not formally described as the only known collection in immature), two unidentified coelo‐mycete fungi, and two species described as new, Monostichella nothofagi and Piggotia nothofagi. All of the species are known from very few collections, and none from outside New Zealand.

An annotated list is presented of all fungi known to be associated with indigenous species of Metrosideros in New Zealand. This includes information on 209 species of fungi, with records taken from the literature, as well as unpublished information associated with specimens held in Herbarium PDD and in Herbarium NZFRI(M). There are relatively few primary pathogens or other fungi specifically associated with Metrosideros. Some secondary pathogens may play a role in dieback of Metrosideros spp., especially following possum browsing. Many wood‐rotting basidiomycetes and other saprobes are included. A few endophytic fungi have been isolated from symptomless leaves. Some non‐specific vesicular‐arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are listed, but mushroom‐like fungi are rarely recorded as Metrosideros does not form endotrophic mycorrhizal associations.

Descriptions and illustrations are provided for three Meliolina hyperparasites from New Zealand: a new genus and species, Annellospermo‐sporella meliolinae, and Malacaria meliolinae on Meliolina leptospermi, and Eriomycopsis meliolinae on Meliolina novae‐zealandiae. Annellospermo‐sporella meliolinae may be the anamorph of Malacaria meliolinae. The occurrence of additional hyphomycetous hyperparasites on Meliolina novae‐zealandiae is noted.

An abundance of novel fungal lineages have been indicated by DNA sequencing of the nuclear ribosomal ITS region from environmental samples such as soil and wood. Although phylogenetic analysis of these novel lineages is a key component of unveiling the structure and diversity of complex communities, such analyses are rare for environmental ITS data due to the difficulties of aligning this locus across significantly divergent taxa. One potential approach to this issue is simultaneous alignment and tree estimation. We targeted divergent ITS sequences of the earth tongue fungi (Geoglossomycetes), a basal class in the Ascomycota, to assess the performance of SATé, recent software that combines progressive alignment and tree building. We found that SATé performed well in generating high-quality alignments and in accurately estimating the phylogeny of earth tongue fungi. Drawing from a data set of 300 sequences of earth tongues and progressively more distant fungal lineages, 30 insufficiently identified ITS sequences from the public sequence databases were assigned to the Geoglossomycetes. The association between earth tongues and plants has been hypothesized for a long time, but hard evidence is yet to be collected. The ITS phylogeny showed that four ectomycorrhizal isolates shared a clade with Geoglossum but not with Trichoglossum earth tongues, pointing to the significant potential inherent to ecological data mining of environmental samples. Environmental sampling holds the key to many focal questions in mycology, and simultaneous alignment and tree estimation, as performed by SATé, can be a highly efficient companion in that pursuit.

Sixty-three species of Rhytismataceae have been reported from New Zealand, on 76 host genera, eight of which are introduced. The species are listed with references to their original publication, additional descriptions and illustrations where appropriate, and host species. In an attempt to make this group of fungi more accessible to those who are not experts in the group, for each host genus a key is provided for the identification of all species of Rhytismataceae known from that host. Two additional keys are provided, one to the nine most common, plurivorous species with a probably incompletely known host range, and another to the genera of Rhytismataceae known from New Zealand. Notes are included on the geographic distribution and ecology of indigenous New Zealand species, and species introduced to New Zealand with their exotic hosts.

The endophytic lifestyle has played an important role in the evolution of the morphology of reproductive structures (body) in one of the most problematic groups in fungal classification, the Leotiomycetes (Ascomycota). Mapping fungal morphologies to two groups in the Leiotiomycetes, the Rhytismatales and Hemiphacidiaceae reveals significant divergence in body size, shape and complexity. Mapping ecological roles to these taxa reveals that the groups include endophytic fungi living on leaves and saprobic fungi living on duff or dead wood. Finally, mapping of the morphologies to ecological roles reveals that leaf endophytes produce small, highly reduced fruiting bodies covered with fungal tissue or dead host tissue, while saprobic species produce large and intricate fruiting bodies. Intriguingly, resemblance between asexual conidiomata and sexual ascomata in some leotiomycetes implicates some common developmental pathways for sexual and asexual development in these fungi.

Six species of Marthamyces are reported for Australia. Three of the species are described as new, the others had previously been reported from Australia as species in the genera Propolis and Naemacyclus. Most of the Australian species are host-specialised: M. emarginatus is known only from Eucalyptus, M. gilvus from Cyperaceae, M. hakeae from Hakea, and M. oritis from Orites. Marthamyces barbatus, common on Eucalyptus, is known also from a single collection on Richea. Marthamyces quadrifida, although known from only a few Australian collections, is a widespread tropical species and is likely to be common on a range of hosts in northern Australia. All species are described and illustrated, and a key to the Australian Marthamyces species is provided.

The Rhytismatales are both genetically and biologically diverse in Australasia. Although taxonomically one of the better known groups of ascomycetes from the region, almost all knowledge on the group is confined to species from south-eastern Australia and New Zealand. The indigenous Australasian species show two distinct patterns of geographic relationship—one group comprises species with a broad tropical distribution, the other comprises species that have close relatives on phylogenetically related hosts in other parts of the temperate Southern Hemisphere. While the widespread tropical species have a broad host range, the others tend to be specialised toward a single host. Further research required includes alpha-taxonomic studies from other parts of Australasia, study of the biological roles these fungi play in Australasian forests and molecular studies on the origin of the genetic diversity of the order in this region.