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While making parasitological examinations of animals that had died in Bronx Park, New York City, I discovered several trematodes in the liver of a sapajou monkey, Cebus apella. In a preliminary report of these worms (Stunkard, 1923) the name Hepatotrema cebi was proposed for them. They agree most closely with the generic diagnosis of Athesmia, but differences in the relative width of the body, position and extent of ceca, size and relation of cirrus sac, and in the character and location of the uterine coils seemed at first to

slides is, in our experience, not necessary. Organisms do not become damaged in the processing, and their staining properties are not impaired. We consistently obtain smears, stained routinely with hematoxylin, in which protozoan cysts and trophozoites are critically stained and readily identified. The method has also worked well with modified Trichrome (Alger, 1966, Am. J. Clin. Path. 45: 361-362) and with Lawless' stain (Burrows, 1965, Microscopic Diagnosis of the Parasites of Man, Yale University Press). In contrast to other fixatives such as formalin or PAF fixative (Burrows, 1967, Am. J. Clin. Path. 48: 342-346), permanent preparations are obtained which can be used for reference purposes, submission to experts, and teaching. Finally, this technique is not only suitable for stool samples, but can be successfully applied to cultured material (Entamoeba histolytica, Chilomastix mesnili, Retortamonas intestinalis, etc.).

The asexual generations of an echinostome trematode were found in the hemal sinuses of the marine snails, Littorina saxatilis and Littorina obtusata, in the region of Woods Hole, Massachusetts. The cercariae develop in rediae and after emergence encyst in bivalve mollusks. Mytilus edulis and Mya arenaria were employed as experimental hosts. The metacercariae developed to sexual maturity in the intestine of laboratory-reared herring gulls, Larus argentatus, and the worms are described as a new species, Himasthla littorinae. Successive stages in the life cycle are figured. Stunkard (1960) reviewed previous studies on the genus Himasthla Dietz, 1909, con- sidered criteria for specific determination, and discussed the validity of certain described spe- cies. Echinostoma annulatum (Diesing, 1850) Cobbold, 1860, was transferred to Himasthla, and Himasthla tensa Linton, 1940, was sup- pressed as a synonym of Himasthla elongata (Mehlis, 1831) Dietz, 1909. A not fully ma- ture specimen from Nycticorax nycticorax (L.), tentatively assigned to H. elongata, is very similar to Himasthla secunda (Nicoll, 1906) Dietz, 1909. This observation may suggest that H. secunda is a not fully mature form of H. elongata. Metacercariae from the palps and gills of Mya arenaria L., taken in the region of Boothbay Harbor, Maine, developed in the

The acanthocephalan genus, Prosthenorchis, is reviewed. Natural and experimental hosts and pathological effects of infection are cited. The anobiid beetles, Lasioderma serricorne and Stegobium paniceum, proved susceptible to infection and are listed as new intermediate hosts of Prosthenorchis elegans. During the early years of the last century, Johann Natterer made extensive collections in South America and the material was deposited in the Museum of Vienna. Among the helminthic parasites were thorny-headed worms, Acanthocephala, from Cebus sciureus (= Saimiri sciurea)l; Jacchus rosalia (= Leontideus rosalia); Jacchus ursulus (= Saguinus tamarin); and Jacchus (Hapale) chrysoleucos (= Callithrix chrysoleuca). Specimens from Leontideus rosalia were described by Olfers (in Rudolphi, 1819) as Echinorhynchus spirula. Others, from the four hosts listed above, were described by Diesing (1851) as Echinorhynchus elegans. This latter species was reported from Saguinus (Oedipomidas) oedipus by Cobbold (1876).

As the result of an extended study of three families of North American trematodes, Polystomidae, Aspidogastridae and Paramphistomidae, certain points of interest in regard to the structure and classification have been elucidated. Since the publication of the completed work may be delayed, a brief statement of the more important points is presented here in advance of the appearance of the extended paper. In the latest classification of the monogenetic trematodes, or Heterocotylea as they were termed by Monticelli, Odhner (1912) divided the group into two suborders, Monopisthocotylea in which a "true vagina is present," and Polyopisthocotylea in which a true vagina is wanting and the so-called "ductus vaginalis" is present. After careful study of the female ducts in the Polystomidae, I am able to show that the organ which functions as a vagina is homologous in all monogenetic trematodes and that there can be no division of the group on the basis of differences in this structure. In the complete paper the full evidence is submitted to show that the "true vagina" of the Monopisthocotylea is homologous to the originally single, secondarily paired and subsequently fused vaginae of the Polyopisthocotylea; altho the two suborders of Odhner are nevertheless valid, the essential difference between them is that the genito-intestinal canal is lacking in the former and present in the latter group. The species that have been included in the genus Polystoma show a wider range of structural variation than is usually present in a natural genus. There are marked differences in the character of digestive and reproductive systems and variation exists also in the type of adhesive apparatus. In P. integerrimum the ceca are much branched, ramifying thru the body and caudal disc. In P. alluaudi the ceca occupy the same location but are merely lobed and have no secondary branches. In P. bulliense, according to Johnston (1912), "a diverticulum from the buccal cavity runs backwards, ventral to the pharynx, and for a distance equal to its length forming a median unpaired buccal pocket." In all other known species there is a simple bifurcate intestine, the ceca terminating just anterior to the caudal disc. In two specimens of P. hassalli, however, the ceca are connected posteriorly.

Some thirty-three species of pseudophyllidean cestodes have been described from seals and sea-lions but the descriptions are so incomplete and imperfect that it is virtually impossible to recognize any of them with certainty. Redescriptions of species, on the basis of incorrectly determined specimens, have undoubtedly added to the confusion. In the absence of information concerning life cycles, consideration must be given to the possibility that representatives of a single species may complete their development in different host species and furthermore that, as a result of development in different hosts, individuals of the same species may manifest differences in size and shape, in rate of growth and sexual maturity, and in extent of development of various tissues and organs. Consequently, specific determination of specimens presents a particularly difficult problem. The pseudophyllidean cestodes of seals and sea-lions have been assigned to nine different genera, but the generic concepts are so indefinite and their limits are so poorly defined that there is no agreement concerning either the number of valid species or the generic groups to which they should be allocated. The uncertainty and confusion regarding the morphology and taxonomy of these cestodes were discussed by many earlier authors and more recently by Mueller (1937) and Wardle, McLeod and Stewart (1947). Most of the species have been referred, at one time or another, to the genus Diphyllobothrium Cobbold, 1858 as emended by Liihe (1910). The genus Diphyllobothrium, as defined by Liihe, is a heterogeneous assemblage and taxonomic revision of these tapeworms was proposed by Mueller (1937) and by Wardle, McLeod and Stewart (1947). The latter authors stated: "It is a cumbersome group of about 70 species-many of them of dubious validity-and comprises forms from toothed-whales, seals, sea-lions, carnivorous land mammals and fisheating birds. Several species have been recorded from humans and one even from a snake. It has always been an unsatisfactory genus to define and analyze, and particularly difficult to evaluate have been the forms from seals and sea-lions that have been recorded by numerous writers." Wardle et al erected a new genus, Cordicephalus, to contain the species found in seals-and sea-lions and recognized four species: Cordicephalus phocarus (Fabricius, 1780) ; C. tectus (Linstow, 1892); C. arctocephalinus (Johnston, 1937) ;and C. quadratus (Linstow, 1892). All other species from seals and sea-lions were regarded as identical with one or other of the four accepted species. The remaining species of Liihe's genus were distributed among six other genera: Diphyllobothrium Cobbold, 1858; Diplogonoporus Loennberg, 1892; Dibothriocephalus Liihe, 1899; Glandicephalus Fuhrmann, 1921 ; Adenocephalus Nybelin, 1931; and Spirometra Mueller, 1937.

The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service is perturbed because of the reduction in numbers of the soft-shelled clam, Mya arenaria, along the coast of New England (Glude, 1955). The writer is studying the parasites of the clam and of its predators (Stunkard, 1951, 1953, 1957, Stunkard and Uzmann, 1958) in an attempt to discover the causes of the decline and possible biological measures for control of the principal predators, the green and horseshoe crabs, Carcinides maenas and Limulus polyphemus. Mya arenaria harbors the asexual generations of digenetic trematodes, including the sporocysts and cercariae of Cercaria myae Uzmann, 1952. These larvae were shown by Stunkard and Uzmann (1958) to be developmental stages of a species of Gymnophallus, whose sexual generation occurs in shore-birds. The asexual stages invade the digestive and sexual organs of the mollusk, limiting or terminating its reproductive activity. The clams also serve as intermediate hosts of other trematodes and 3 species of metacercariae occur commonly in the gills and palps. The life-cycles and bionomics of these worms are now under investigation. Since the asexual generations of these metacercariae must occur in mollusks which live in the immediate vicinity of the infected clam, an attempt is being made to find and identify them. Furthermore, since the definitive hosts of these metacercariae are animals that feed on M. arenaria, examination of shore-birds has been started. To obtain information on the sexually mature stages, metacercariae have been fed to laboratory-raised birds: chicks, eider ducks, herring gulls and common terns, as well as to mice and hamsters. The clams and other mollusks, the eider ducklings, and a sampling of shore-birds were provided by Walter R. Welch, Chief of Clam Investigations, Boothbay Harbor, Maine, under whose authority the study is conducted. Grateful appreciation is here expressed to him and members of his staff.

A massive infection with what is apparently the same species was discovered in a young male Gorilla gorilla gorilla (Savage and Wyman) which died in New York. At death the animal weighed 30.8 pounds and was probably about two years old. It had been brought by airplane from Africa on February 7, 1949, and although it came from the Congo region the locality where it was taken is uncertain. The animal was ill on arrival and shortly thereafter one of us, (L. J. G.) veterinarian of the New York Zoological Society, was called for medical advice and treatment. Its temperature fluctuated between 99 and 102 degrees F.; there were recurrent intestinal disturbances, anorexia, intermittent diarrhea and constipation. At times there were periods of two to four days in which there were no bowel movements. The fingernails had transverse bands of roughened areas, suggesting previous nutritional deficiencies or febrile conditions. Neither anemia or jaundice was noted. One eyelid was injected with one-tenth cc. of 1 percent P.P.D. tuberculin; there was an immediate reaction. An edematous swelling of the lid completely closed the eye in a few minutes, but totally subsided within five hours. No tubercular lesions were observed at autopsy and the significance of the reaction is obscure. Several fecal examinations were made; hookworm eggs were present in large numbers but no trematode eggs were observed. To remove the hookworms, two treatments with tetrachlorethylene were administered but ova persisted in the stools. After the second treatment, diarrhea developed and the mucus contained large numbers of amoebae. Administration of carbarsone had no apparent effect on the amoebae; the dysentery continued and emetine hydrochloride was given. This treatment also proved ineffective; the stools became bloody and were unformed during the subsequent life of the animal. It failed to give the expected response to medication or to symptomatic and supportive measures. During a six week period it lost about four pounds and died of terminal pneumonia on April 2, 1949. Autopsy of the gorilla was begun within three hours after death. The carcass showed no gross lesions other than early stages of lobar pneumonia, but the hepatic and especially the pancreatic ducts were filled with enormous numbers of small trematodes. Examination of the rectal contents revealed a few trematode eggs, but the number was not at all commensurate with the intensity of the infection. A piece of pancreas about 10 by 10 by 15 mm. was teased to bits in a Petri dish containing Ringer's solution. The worms were fixed and counted; 1028 specimens were present. Pieces of the liver and pancreas were removed, fixed and cut in serial

Cestodes collected by the Plague Mission to Venezuela 1950, which was sponsored by the Pan American Sanitary Bureau, the Venezuelan Government and the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, U. S. Navy, were submitted to the writer by Doctor Ernst Schwarz, U. S. Naval Medical School, Bethesda, Md., for study and identification. The worms were found in the small intestine of a hystricomorph rodent, Proechimys cayennensis trinitatis (Or. No. 158; male; from Campamento Raphael Rangel, Sierra Maestra, Estado Aragua, Venezuela; altitude 1260 meters; collected by E. Schwarz, J. M. Amberson, H. K. Schwarz, July 27, 1950). Members of the genus Proechimys are found in tropical forest in Central and South America from Nicaragua to southern Brazil. Grateful acknowledgment is made to Doctor Schwarz for the opportunity to study this material. The tapeworms are referable to the genus Raillietina and to the subgenus Raillietina in which the genital pores are unilateral and each egg-capsule contains more than one egg. Specific determination, however, presents a very difficult problem. The genus Raillietina is cosmopolitan in distribution; the worms infect birds and mammals and have been reported repeatedly from man. In a review of the genus, Hughes and Schultz (1942) listed 226 described species and many others have since been added. In human hosts the worms have been found only sporadically, in widely separated localities, and usually in small numbers. Joyeux and Baer (1929) postulated that rare cestodes of man are accidental infections by species naturally parasitic in other animals, especially rodents, which live in the same areas. The first report of human infection by a species of Raillietina was given by Davaine (1870)* who described Taenia madagascariensis from two specimens passed by children living on the Comores islands near Madagascar. Blanchard (1891) transferred the species to the genus Davainea, and Fuhrmann (1920) included it in the new genus Raillietina. This or other closely related species have been reported from man and rats at various places in southern and eastern Asia. Leuckart (1891) reported it from man in Siam and Garrison (1911) from man in the Philippine Islands. The earlier accounts pertained to human infections but, as wild animals were examined for parasites, many species of Raillietina were described from birds and mammals of the Eastern Hemisphere (see Meggitt and Subramanian, 1927). L6pez-Neyra (1930, 1931) suggested that many of the species described from Africa and Asia represent varieties of a single species which infects rodents and occasionally man. Narihara (1935) reported R. miadagascariensis from both men and rats in Formosa, and Miyazaki (1950) found the species in Rattus norvegicus and R. rattus in Japan. Joyeux and Baer (1936) found specimens of

AT THE outset of our discussion it 11 would be useful, I believe, to stake out the areas and list the items on which there is general agreement. It is admitted that species exist, and that the species is the basic unit in taxonomy. Further, it is agreed that taxonomy has two primary functions or obligations, one of which is to designate each species in a distinctive and permanent manner, so that it is and will continue to be identified by the same cognitive symbol or name. The second task i-s the formulation of a system of classification which will express evolutionary sequence and genetic relationship of fossil and living organisms. It has been stated that John Ray (1686) first introduced into natural history an exact concept of species, and it pertainedto plants rather than animals. At that time and for the next century, the idea of "fixity of species" was accepted; that idea precluded the taxonomic problems which confront us today, and Linnaeus in the Systema Naturae was able to name and classify many common animals, which remain as accepted, valid species.

Stossich (1895) described a cestode from Varanus arenarius, taken in Egypt, as a new species, Taenia varanii. Sonsino (1895) described worms from the same host species under the designation, Panceria arenaria. But Panceria was preoccupied and Fuhrmann (1899) wrote the generic name, Pancerina. Pancerina was preoccupied by Pancerina Chun, 1879, and the name Panceriella is proposed to replace Pancerina Fuhrmann, not Pancerina Chun. The type and only known species becomes Panceriella varanii (Stossich, 1895) comb. n. The genus Panceriella is similar to Oochoristica Liihe, 1898. Both are based on species from varanid lizards and differ by duplication of the reproductive organs in Panceriella. Both were assigned originally to the subfamily Linstowiinae, family Anoplocephalidae. Joyeux and Baer (1961) transferred the genera to the subfamily Davaineinae, family Davaineidae. The two families have genera with common and overlapping morphological characters, with resultant taxonomic uncertainty. Evidence from bionomics, life cycles, and development suggests that the genera belong in the Linstowiinae. THE GENUS PANCERIELLA Stossich (1895) described a single juvenile cestode from the intestine of Varanus arenarius, taken in Egypt, as a new species, Taenia varanii. Shorty thereafter, Sonsino (1895) described two mature but not gravid specimens from the same host as Panceria arenaria gen. n., sp. n.; named in honor of the naturalist, Professor Paulo Panceri of Pavia. Fuhrmann (1899) apparently assumed that the worms described by Stossich and Sonsino were specifically identical and, since the generic name Panceria was preoccupied by Panceria Andres, 1877 (Quar. J. Micr. Sci., n. s. 17: 221; Porifera), without explanation, he wrote the generic name, Pancerina. But Pancerina was also preoccupied by Pancerina Chun, 1879 (Abh. Senckeng. Ges. 11: 192; Coelenterata). The name Panceriella is here proposed to replace Pancerina Fuhrmann, 1899, not Pancerina Chun, 1879. The suggested generic name retains the intention of Sonsino as a patronymic designation and indicates that the cestode is small. The name of the type and only known species becomes Panceriella varanii (Stossich, 1895) comb. n. Sonsino (1895) described the duplicated genital organs in each proglottid of P. arenaria and noted that this condition was present in the genera (Depylidium, sic) Dipylidium Received for publication 27 June 1969. 1Supported by NSF, GB-8423. Leuckart, 1863 and (Monezia, sic) Moniezia Blanchard, 1891. However, he listed reasons why the varanid species could not be assigned to either of these genera. He stated that the only species known to him to have double genital organs and testes disposed in two distinct areas was Taenia bifaria von Siebold in Creplin, 1846. This species from various ducks and geese, regarded as identical with Taenia laevis Bloch, 1782, was named type of the genus Diploposthe Jacobi, 1896. The systematic position of the genus Panceriella is yet equivocal. Ransom (1909) included Panceria Fuhrmann, 1899, in the subfamily Dipylininae, family Dilepididae. Baer (1927) redescribed and figured P. varanii (Stossich, 1895) Ransom, 1909, and assigned the genus to the subfamily Linstowinae [sic] Fuhrmann, 1907, family Anoplocephalidae. This disposition was adopted by Fuhrmann (1931), Wardle and McLeod (1952), and Yamaguti (1959). However, Spassky (1949) had elevated the subfamily Linstowiinae to family status to contain two subfamilies: Linstowiinae Fuhrmann, 1907, and Inermicapsiferinae Lopez-Neyra, 1943. In the subfamily Linstowiinae, Spassky (1951) included the genera: Linstowia Zschokke, 1899; Oochoristica Liihe, 1898; Pancerina Fuhrmann, 1899; Multicapsiferina Fuhrmann, 1921; Atriotaenia Sandground, 1926; Mathevotaenia Akhumyan, 1946; and four new genera: Cycloskrjabinia, Oschmarenia, Semenoviella, and Sobolevina. In

The monostomes are among the least known of North American trematode groups. Records give descriptions of only six species, each the single representative of a genus, and according to the classification of Ward (1918) belonging to four different families. Existing descriptions in most cases are far from complete and data necessary for taxonomic determination are lacking. This deficiency has been pointed out by other workers, both in this country and in Europe, and the classification of the monostomes is not well established. In fact, certain investigators regard them as aberrant forms, sprung from different distome groups, which alike have lost the acetabulum. If this is true and the similarity is merely superficial, the present system of classification must be entirely revised. Careful, complete descriptions of these forms are necessary to provide the data for a natural system of classification. The present study, it is hoped, will prove a step toward the solution of this problem; Heronimus chelydrac was described by MacCallum (1902) from the lungs of the American snapping turtle, Chelydra serpentina, taken at Ontario, Canada. After the description of the form, the author stated, "It seems necessary, therefore, to establish a new genus in the family Monostomidae to accommodate this form-a genus which stands far apart from the other genera in several respects, but especially in the position and nature of the genital opening, in the complicated structure and course of the uterine tract, the unusual formation of the yolk glands, in the presence of but one testicle, and in the position of the excretory pore." Barker and Parsons (1914) in a preliminary announcemenlt described a monostome, parasitic in the lungs of Chrysenys marginata, which they named Aorchis extensus. In a later paper (Barker and Parsons, 1917) they gave a more extended description of the form based on the study of the specimens originally secured from Lake Emily, Minnesota, and others found later in the lungs of the same host taken from the Mississippi River near Fairport, Iowa. As diagnostic characters of the genus Aorchis they stated: "Body medium to large, slightly tapering toward the anterior and posterior ends, posterior end rounded. Oral sucker small, weak but distinct. Mouth opening terminal. Pharynx strongly muscular, with

Stunkard, Horace W. (American Miusetum of Natural History, Central Par-k West at 79th St., New York, N.Y. 10024) 1972. Clarification of Taxonomy in the Mesozoa. Syst. Zool. 21:210-214.-The literature of the Mesozoa is confused because of errors in taxonomy, both in names and dates. Faulty notions concerning the relations between hosts and parasites led to the erection of imaginary genera. Differences of opinion on the limits of generic concepts have resulted in suppression and restoration of generic names. The status of suprageneric categories is similarly confused. Families have been erected, e.g., Heterocyemidae van Beneden, 1882; Orthonectidae Hartmann, 1925; and Heteronectidae Hartmann, 1925, with names that are invalid since they are not based on type genera. The designations and dates given by Grasse in the Traite de Zoologie (1961) are sometimes in error or are otherwise indefinite. The family names Rhopaluridae and Pelmatosphaeridae proposed by Caullery (1961) had been established by Stunkard (1937), where other emendations were made. The Mesozoa, originally regarded as a subphylum intermediate between Protozoa and Metazoa, are secondarily simplified marine organisms derived from free-living progenitors, degraded as a result of parasitism. Their morphology and life cycles, still only partially elucidated, indicate platyhelminth affinities. The rhombozoans and digenetic trematodes are initially parasites of mollusks and the dicyemids arose and evolved with the cephalopods. [Mesozoa.] The name Mesozoa was proposed by E. van Beneden (1876) to denote a group of organisms which he regarded as intermediate between Protozoa and Metazoa. According to Nouvel (1948), the first of these organisms had been discovered by Cavolini (1787) in the renal organs of cephalopod mollusks. They were described by Krohn (1839) and Erdl (1843). Von Kolliker (1849) reported that they had long been known to zoologists and specimens found by him in Octopus vulgaris and Octopus macropus, as well as those reported by other authors from different cephalopods, were regarded as a single species which he named Dicyema paradoxum. The genus, as erected, was monotypic and D. paradoxum is the type species. The generic name, Dicyema, was selected by von Kolliker to denote the fact, first observed by him, that the animals produced two kinds of embryos, which he designated as "wurmf6rmig" and "infusorienartig." Van Beneden (1876) recognized that the vermiform and infusoriform embryos were produced in different individuals, termed 1 Supported by NSF GB-30661 respectively, nematogenes and rhombogenes. He described the cellular organization and traced the development of the vermiform embryos. The anterior cells that form the calotte were termed polars, the two lateral cells between the calotte and the more posterior superficial cells were termed parapolars, while the central cell was regarded as endodermal. Van Beneden restricted the genus Dicyema to parasites of octopuses; those of 0. vulgaris were designated as Dicyema typus; those from 0. macropus as Dicyema clausianum. The name, D. paradoxum, was ignored. Van Beneden believed in strict taxonomic correlation between hosts and parasites. New genera were erected for the dicyemid parasites of each genus of cephalopods other than Octopus and the parasites from the several cephalopod species were regarded as distinct. Species described by Wagener (1857) were redescribed and renamed when assigned to the new genera. Four genera were included in a new family

From October, 1929, to March, 1930, and during the spring of 1931, first year tadpoles of Rana clamitans from a goldfish hatchery near Cincinnati, Ohio, were observed to be infected by a new species of Copepoda for which the name Lernaea ranae is proposed. The genus Lernaea was erected by Linnaeus in 1758 to contain three species, two of which, L. cyprinacea and L. salmnonea, are parasitic in fresh-water fishes, while the third, L. asellina, occurs in marine fish. L. salmronea and L. asellina have since been named types of the genera Salmonicola and Medesicaste respectively, leaving L. cyprinacea as type of the genus Lernaea. Excellent historical and critical reviews of the genus and of the family Lernaeidae as well as bibliographic references to earlier papers are contained in papers by Wilson (1917, 1918). Subsequently, the species L. haplocephala, described by Cunningham in 1914 from Lake Tanganyika and the Nile, was reported from the Congo basin by Wilson (1920a) and from the Cameroun by Brian (1927). Leigh-Sharpe (1925) described L. elegans from the buccal cavity of the Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica. The life history of this species was later studied by Nakai (1927) and a description of its internal anatomy and effects upon the host was published by Matsui and Kumada (1928). Wilson (1928) reported a new species, L. composita, from Malapterurus electricus from the Nile. The first species reported from the United States was L. cruciata, described by Le Sueur in 1824 from Lake Erie. Kr0yer in 1863 described L. catostomi and L. pomotidis from the Mississippi River. Kellicott in 1881 added L. tortua from New York and L. pectoralis from Michigan. Wilson (1916) described two species, L. tenuis and L. variabilis from Fairport, Iowa; he also reported the occurrence of L. pomotidis and L. tortua at Fairport, Iowa, and listed L. cruciata from Fairport, Iowa, Scott, Arkansas, and Black Creek, North Carolina. Two new species, L. anolmala from North Carolina and L. dolabrodes from Wisconsin, were added by Wilson (1918). He later (1920) proposed the name L. insolens for L. anomala, preoccupied. In a brief preliminary paper, Enders and Rifenburgh (1928) reported an unnamed species of Lernaea parasitic in goldfish from Indiana. In addition to the species cited, several others have been recorded, particularly by early

SUMMARY Thousands of free-living mites were collected near Hamburg from areas where wild rabbits were numerous and heavily infected with anoplocephaline cestodes. The mites were dissected and cysticercoids were removed from Scutovertex minutus, Scheloribates laevigatus and Pelops tardus. The larvae were fed to young, domestic rabbits and a cysticercoid froIn S. minutus developed into a sexually mature specimen of Cittotaenia ctenoides. Other mites, collected from areas where they would not be exposed to eggs of anoplocephaline cestodes, were fed eggs of Cittotaenia ctenoides and C. denticulata. Developmental stages of C. ctenoides were recovered from the body cavities of Scutovertex minutus, Galumina obvious, Pelops acromius, Liacarus coracinus, Notaspis coleoptratus, Liebstadia similis, Xenillus tegeocranus, Scheloribates laevigatus, Cepheus cepheiformis, Trichoribates incisellus, and Galumna This content downloaded from 157.55.39.76 on Wed, 20 Apr 2016 06:52:21 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms THE JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY nervosus. The larvae attained the cysticercoid stage in the first seven of the species listed and, since development appeared normal in the other mites, it is possible that they might have completed their development if the hosts had lived long enough. Development of C. denticulata was observed in S. minutus, X. tegeocranus, C. cepheiformis, T. incisellus, S. laevigatus, and L. coracinus, although only S. minutus lived long enough in the cultures for cysticercoids to be produced. Infections were obtained only in oribatid mites. None of the rabbits fed cysticercoids from experimentally infected mites gave evidence of infection and it is probable that these larvae were not entirely mature. The developmental stages of C. ctenoides and C. denticulata in the intermediate hosts are described from experimental infections. The development of C. ctenoides, C. denticulata and C. pectinata in the final hosts is described from natural infections. No evidence was found to support the idea that these tapeworms migrate from the intestine to the body cavity of normal, live, rabbits.

a contracted condition. The other, from the neck of a cat in Washington, D. C., was in an earlier stage, white with small black spines along the anterior and posterior margins of the segments, and measured 6.4 mm. long in a contracted condition. Other sites of infection in cats, listed by Hall, were on the back, the belly, beside the eye, and under the jaw. According to Matheson (1950), members of the genus Cuterebra are known only from North America. Their larvae are parasitic in rabbits and rodents and occur in tumors and warbles under the skin or in the nasal and pharyngeal cavities. They occur as accidental parasites in other mammals and Matheson cited two cases in man. He provided a key to the third-stage larvae of the more common flies that cause myiasis but stated, "Keys to the first-and second stage larvae are omitted because they are not of sufficient accuracy to warrant their use. Such larvae should be submitted to specialists." The present account is apparently the first to report invasion of the cranial cavity by Cuterebra larvae, and although such infection is certainly rare, it may be more common than currently realized since the brains of cats, rabbits and

Tamerlania bragai was described by Dos Santos (1934) as Tamerlanea bragai (obvious misspelling of Tamerlania) from the kidneys and excretory ducts of domestic pigeons and chickens at Rio de Janeiro. It was reported from the pigeon in Sao Paulo by Reis and Nobrega (1936), in the Philippines by Tubangui and Masilunigen (1941), in Puerto Rico by Maldonado and Hoffman (1941) and from turkeys in Brazil by Barretto and Filho (1942). All of the Latin American authors spelled the generic name "Tamerlanea" and none of the accounts reported the presence of an acetabulum. The genus Tamerlania was erected by Skrjabin (1924) to contain T. zarudnyi from Passer montanus in Russian Turkestan. Khitrowo-Kalantarian (1925), from original observations and from information communicated by Skrjabin and by Issaitschikow, reported the parasite from four additional species of birds and stated that the digestive ceca unite posteriorly. Other described species include T. meruli by Nezlobinski (1926), T. bragai by Dos Santos (1934), T. japonica by Yamaguti (1935) and 7'. melospizae by Penner (1939). Yamaguti (1941) reported that T. japonica is specifically identical with T. zarudnyi. Penner formulated a key to the species of the genus, the original diagnosis of which was emended or amplified by each of the subsequent writers. Whether an acetabulum is present in species other than T. bragai remains to be determined. Skrjabin (1924) also erected the family EUCOTYLIDAE to contain Eucotyle Cohn, 1904 and two new genera, Tanaisia and Tamerlania. Two additional genera, Lepidopteria and Ohridia were added by Nezlobinski (1926). The family characters were stated by Fuhrmann (1928) and reviewed by Cheatum (1938) and Penner (1939). According to these authors the worms are monostomes, parasites of the renal ducts of birds. The family is world-wide in distribution, the hosts are chiefly migrants, and several of the species have been described on the basis of limited material. As a result, the morphology is imperfectly known and the validity of certain genera and species is questionable. In a personal communication, dated September 25, 1942, Dr. William A. Hoffman wrote that one of his students, Mr. Jose F. Maldonado, had found that T. bragai possesses a small ventral sucker. Dr. Hoffman stated that after publication of the note, Maldonado and Hoffman (1941), Mr. Maldonado had discontinued his studies on T. bragai, but that the presence of an acetabulum in the species should be of interest in determining the phylogeny of the monostomes and offered, with the reservation that the discovery of the acetabulum should be accredited to Maldonado, to place the material at my disposal. The material sent by Dr. Hoffman consisted of one mounted specimen (Fig. 1) and an incomplete set of serial sections of the kidney. The study was completed and a manuscript prepared, giving credit to Mr. Maldonado for discovery of the acetabulum. Subsequently, Mr. Maldonado returned to Puerto Rico and continued his studies on T. bragai. Fol

Heronimus chelydrae MacCallum, 1902, the digenetic trematode from the lungs of North American turtles, is specifically identical with Monostomum molle Leidy, 1856. The name of the species is emended to Heronimus mollis (Leidy, 1856) n. comb.

A detailed description is given of Caballerocotyla klawei sp. n. The systematic position and taxonomic status of this form are considered, as well as the history and structure of the subfamily Capsalinae in general. Price's original and revised keys to the genera of Capsalinae are given, and a new key is provided to the species of Caballerocotyla, which includes the new form described in this paper. Six specimens, removed 29 March 1957 from the nasal capsule of Neothunnus macropterus taken at lat 18? 24' and long 104? 38' in the Pacific Ocean were referred by Witold L. Klawe of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California to the writer for study and identification. Grateful acknowledgment is made to Mr. Klawe for the opportunity to describe the specimens. All measurements are in millimeters.

YSTEMATIC zoology is concerned with the evolutionary history of animal groups; with the evaluation and interpretation of the status of taxonomic units. Classification is essentially a graphic method of portraying genetic interrelations of members belonging to the several categories: species, genera, and suprageneric assemblages. These groups cannot be considered as static; even the species is merely a concept of the present status of a constantly changing, dynamic population of closely related individuals. Consequently, systematic zoology is an exceedingly difficult and controversial subject, as different investigators, using incomplete and often fragmentary data, attempt to decipher the course and modes of evolution. With the acceptance of the idea of descent with modification, phylogeny came to occupy an important place in the thinking of naturalists; it was then largely abandoned as a profitless if not hopeless subject, but new techniques and discoveries have revived interest and the awareness that systematics constitutes an integral and essential part of any comprehensive study of living organisms. Many criteria may be employed to determine the former history and systematic position of any group of animals. The methods and data of various biological disciplinescomparative anatomy, embryology, cy" tology, genetics, physiology, biochemistry, geographical distribution, and paleontology-have contributed to the study of systematics. But the methods of value in dealing with free-living individuals and groups are often inadequate and sometimes misleading when applied to animal parasites. According to Swellengrebel (1940), a parasite is "an organism wholly dependent on another living organism for its food, its shelter and its reproduction." The term "parasite" does not refer to a particular group of animals; it does not have any systematic connotation; rather it refers to a way of life. Members of many taxonomic groups have adopted this mode of life and, indeed, it is probably as old and as universal as animal associations themselves. Parasites have been derived from free-living progenitors and parasitism involves a gradual and progressive adaptation to a dependent condition on the part of the parasite. To be successful in the new venture, the organisms must have been preadapted for existence in the new environment and the preadaptation was either physiological or morphological or perhaps both. In the first instance, parasitism may have been accidental or incidental to the situation, and probably resulted from attempts to obtain either security or food. It was continued and developed by natural selection, since it benefitted the organism and had survival value in the struggle for existence. The parasite has found not only protection, but a constant and abundant food supply, which results in increased reproductive capacity and consequently in the perpetuation and dispersal of the species. Parasitic forms have undergone adaptive specialization for their particular mode of existence, and this adaptation has led to changes from the original physiological and morphological features. Both convergence and divergence have been accentuated in parasitic groups. With physiological adjustment to changed conditions of the new environment, organs which functioned most actively in a free-living condition undergo reduction and may entirely disappeared. The sensory, nervous

In the first comprehensive treatise on the endocrine organs and secretions of invertebrate animals, Koller (1929) reviewed the observations of earlier authors. The following decade witnessed the important monographic accounts of de Lerma (1934; 1936), Koller (1937), Hanstr6m (1937; 1939), and von der Wense (1938). Koller and Meyer (1930) reported that the hormone from the eye-stalks of crustaceans Crangon vulgaris and Praunus inermis caused expansion of the chromatophores of the fishes, Gobius ruthensparri and Pleuronectes platessa. The results were confirmed by Kropp and Perkins (1933). Abramowitz (1936) reported that the hormone intermedin, prepared from the pituitary glands of sheep, expanded the chromatophores of the fiddler crab, Uca, after the pigment had been contracted by the removal of the eye-stalks. He stated (p. 523), "The vertebrate pigmentary hormone is thus capable of evoking responses of invertebrate chromatophores, just as the crustacean hormone is capable of acting on the chromatophores of vertebrates as first demonstrated by Koller and Meyer and by Kropp and Perkins." Schmidt (1935) reported more rapid growth and earlier sexual maturity of the fresh-water polychaete, Lycastis ranauensis, when thyroid, anterior pituitary, and thymus preparations were added to the culture media. Reporting the investigation, Feuerborn (1936) stated (p. 139), "Zusammenfassend kann gesagt werden, dass die Versuche an Lycastis im Gegensatz zu bisherigen Versuchen an Wirbellosen zeigen, dass dieses Object von Wirbeltierhormonen im engeren und weiteren Sinne nach verschiedener Richtung und in z.T. hohem Masse beeinflusst wird." The results were accepted by Hanstrom (1939) who stated (p. 11), "The action of the gonadotropic hormone of the hypophysis was for the first time established in invertebrates." Further studies in the past 20 years have demonstrated the presence and functions of hormone substances in plants and have established clearly that endocrine secretions regulate rates of physiological processes in both vertebrate and invertebrate animals. It is well-established that growth and molting of insects are directed and controlled by endocrine secretions. Cleveland (1957) reported correlation between molting of the wood-feeding roach, Cryptocercus, and the successive sexual processes in members of 10 genera of protozoans which live in the intestine of this insect. The observation was confirmed by Nutting and Cleveland (1958) on evidence from cervical ligatures, glandular extirpations, and transfaunation experiments. The procerebral pars intercerebralis was designated as the regulatory center. However, studies on the effects of the hormones of vertebrates on invertebrates and of extracts of invertebrate tissues on vertebrate animals have led to divergent and often conflicting results. In certain instances, effects attributed to hormones have been interpreted by other investigators as merely the results of more or less favorable nutritional conditions, or of irritation, or of intensification of normal activities.