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The Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) is a prominent aquatic invader with substantial negative economic and environmental impacts. The aim of the present study was to re-evaluate the genetic diversity of mitten crabs throughout their native and invaded ranges based on publicly available sequence data, and assess if multiple introductions or rapid adaptation could be responsible for biologically divergent mitten crabs in Northern Europe. We assembled available genetic data of a fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit one gene (COI) for all species of the genusEriocheir. We applied phylogenetic and population genetic analyses to compare native and invasive populations, and to identify possible source populations. The phylogenetic reconstruction revealed that five COI sequences from Europe, morphologically identified as Chinese mitten crab, actually belong to the Japanese mitten crab (Eriocheir japonica), representing the first indication of its presence in European waters. All other COI sequences from Europe could unambiguously be assigned to the Chinese mitten crab. In some Northern German populations of Chinese mitten crabs, genetic diversity was surprisingly high, due to seven unique haplotypes encoding several amino acid substitutions. This diversity may reflect a cryptic introduction from an unsampled native location, or rapid adaptation in the invaded range. Based on the genetic diversity shared between native and introduced range, Feiyunjiang, a tributary of the Yangtze River, emerges as a plausible source population for the original introduction of Chinese mitten crabs to Europe. This study highlights the complex and dynamic invasion processes of mitten crabs in Europe. We urge to further monitor mitten crab invasions using genetic tools.

Genetic studies of introduced non-native species are a valuable tool to investigate invasion history and pathways, source populations and multiple introductions of alien species, as well as evolutionary genetic changes following establishment in a new environment. We used a set of nine polymorphic microsatellites to analyse the population genetic structure of the introduced Asian shore crabHemigrapsus takanoialong European coasts. Our dataset covered the complete known European range of the species, including the most recent records from Great Britain and the southwestern Baltic Sea. The results showed a similarly high genetic diversity ofH. takanoithroughout Europe, and no indication of genetic bottlenecks during secondary spread, even in the most recently established populations. Analyses for population structure along geographic regions gave support for a separation between the Bay of Seine populations (northern France) and all other populations. Genetic differentiation within the North and Baltic Seas was more subtle and patchy, hinting to potential unrecognised introduction events, dispersal barriers and anthropogenic vector activity. The populations from the Baltic Sea and Great Britain clustered with the Wadden Sea populations, suggesting secondary introductions from the southeastern North Sea as likely invasion pathways. In summary, we suggest that a combination of anthropogenic secondary spread and the species’ reproductive biology have prevented a loss of genetic diversity during its ongoing expansion. We argue that genetic data depicting population status shortly after an introduction event—like the British and Baltic Sea populations ofH. takanoi—may provide important baseline data for investigations of genetic changes during establishment and adaptation processes.

[Aim]: Climate changes in the past had a deep impact on the evolutionary history of many species and left genetic signatures that are often still detectable today. We investigated the geographical pattern of mitochondrial DNA diversity in the European wild boar (Sus scrofa). Our final aims were to clarify the influence of present and past climatic conditions, infer the geographical position of glacial refugia, and suggest post-glacial spatial dynamics. [Location]: Europe. [Methods]: D-loop sequences were obtained for 763 individuals from Portugal to western Russia. Phylogenetic, multivariate and interpolation methods were used to describe the genetic and geographical patterns. Climatic suitability during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) was predicted using MaxEnt. The effect of present and past suitability on the observed patterns of diversity was evaluated by multiple linear regression. [Results]: We confirmed the existence of a ubiquitous mitochondrial clade in Europe (E1), an endemic clade in Italy (E2) and a few East Asian haplotypes (A), presumably introgressed from domestic pigs. No Near Eastern haplotypes were detected. Genetic divergence was not simply related to geographical distance. A clear south-north decreasing gradient of diversity was observed, with maximum levels in putative glacial refugia. Latitudinal variation in climatic conditions during the LGM was shown to be a good predictor of current genetic diversity. Moreover, an unexpected similarity between Iberia and eastern Europe was observed, while central European populations showed a higher affinity to the Italian gene pool. [Main conclusions]: The current distribution of mitochondrial genetic diversity was highly influenced by past climatic events, especially those related to the LGM, and is consistent with a major contribution of the Italian peninsula and the Balkans to the post-glacial recolonization of northern areas. More recent processes, such as restocking and extensive hunting, probably acted at rather local scales, without great impact on the global pattern of mitochondrial diversity., Sequencing activities were funded by the Sardinian Regional Government (L.R. 7/2007 Promozione della Ricerca Scientifica e dell’Innovazione Tecnologica in Sardegna). D.B. had a PhD grant financed by the European Social Fund, Operational Programme 2007/2013 – Axis IV – Human Capital Investment. S.T.V. was supported by a PhD Fellowship for International students of the University of Ferrara. B.J. andT.B. were supported by grants N N304 253935 from the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education and Research Potential in Conservation and Sustainable Management of Biodiversity – BIOCONSUS from the EC’s 7th Framework Programme (contract no. 245737). Mobility between labs in Sassari and Kiel was financed by the Italy–Germany Vigoni cooperation program 2010–2011.

We carried out a population genetic analysis of five southern African gemsbok (Oryx gazella) populations based on 530 bp of the mitochondrial control region and ten microsatellites in 75 individuals. Both markers show the high variability often observed in African bovids. Three of the populations which can be traced back to very small founding or current sizes do not show any signs of reduced variability compared to the remaining populations. The mitochondrial haplotypes form three distinct lineages which most likely originated in the Pleistocene when climate fluctuations led to periodical reduction and spreading of gemsbok habitat and which, today, are found throughout the distribution range. Bayesian microsatellite analyses yielded two groups, suggesting a more recent geographical differentiation following the admixture of the mtDNA lineages. Combining our sequences with available published data of the remaining oryx species allowed for a direct molecular comparison of O. gazella and O. beisa which have sometimes been considered a single species. The average genetic divergence between haplotypes from the two taxa was very high (39.9%), supporting their classification into two different species.

We analysed 131 common impala (Aepyceros melampus melampus) samples from two provinces in South Africa (Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal) that are separated by the Drakensberg Mountain Range using sequences of the mitochondrial control region and seven polymorphic nuclear microsatellite loci. In line with earlier studies on bovid species, we found very high values of genetic diversity, particularly at the mtDNA locus with an overall nucleotide diversity of 3.6% and an overall haplotype diversity of 0.98. All statistical approaches confirmed a significant population differentiation between Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal, suggesting that areas of unsuitable habitat caused by the presence of the Drakensberg Range and the Indian Ocean coastal belt act as a barrier to gene flow. Only few individuals with signs of admixed origin were indicative of translocations or rare migration between the two provinces. Combination of our mtDNA data set with those of previous studies on impala from south-western, southern and eastern Africa revealed the highest diversity in South Africa. This is in line with the hypothesis of a southern glacial refuge from which various African ungulate species spread northeast during the Holocene, although in the case of impala further analyses based on larger data sets will be necessary to definitively settle this question. Zusammenfassung Anhand genetischer Daten (mitochondriale Kontrollregion und sieben nukleare Mikrosatellitenloci) wurden 131 Impalas aus den durch die Drakensberge voneinander getrennten sudafrikanischen Provinzen Limpopo und KwaZulu-Natal untersucht. Im Einklang mit fruheren Studien an Boviden fanden wir eine sehr hohe genetische Variabilitat, insbesondere fur den mitochondrialen Locus mit Gesamtnukleotid- und Haplotypendiversitaten von 3.6% und 0.98. Samtliche statistischen Ansatze zeigten eine signifikante Differenzierung zwischen Populationen aus Limpopo und KwaZulu-Natal. Insbesondere die Drakensberge scheinen als Migrationsbarriere zu wirken. Wenige Individuen zeigten genomische Anteile beider Provinzen, was auf seltenen naturlichen Genflus oder Translokationen hinweist. Die Kombination unserer Daten mit denen fruherer Studien an Impalas aus dem sudwestlichen, sudlichen und ostlichen Afrika zeigten, das die Art in Sudafrika die hochste genetische Variabilitat aufweist. Dies steht in Einklang mit der Hypothese eines sudlichen Glazialrefugiums, aus dem sich verschiedene afrikanische Huftiere im Holozan nach Nordosten ausgebreitet haben.

As a consequence of persecution and habitat fragmentation, wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) in Western Europe have experienced a severe reduction in population numbers and sizes. The remaining wildcat populations are considered to be endangered by losses of genetic variability and by hybridisation with free-ranging domestic cats. To investigate genetic diversity within and among wild and domestic cat populations in Germany and to estimate the extent of gene flow between both forms, we analysed a total of 266 individuals. PCR-amplification and sequencing of 322 base pairs of a highly variable part of the mitochondrial control region (HV1) of 244 specimens resulted in 41 haplotypes with 31 polymorphic sites. Additionally, eight microsatellite loci were examined for those 244 cats. Moreover, a total of 46 wildcats and 22 domestic cats could be genotyped for 13 polymorphic out of 31 enzyme loci. Genetic variability in both groups was generally high. Variability in domestic cat populations was higher than in wildcat populations. Almost no differentiation between domestic cat populations could be found (FST for microsatellites=3%). In contrast, wildcat populations differed significantly from one another (FST for microsatellites=9.55%) Within the smaller wildcat populations, a reduction of genetic diversity was detectable with regard to the nuclear DNA. Wildcat and domestic cat mitochondrial haplotypes were separated, suggesting a very low level of maternal gene flow between both forms. In microsatellites and to a somewhat lesser extent in allozymes, wildcats and domestic cats showed distinct differentiation, suggesting an only low extent of past hybridisation in certain populations. The microsatellite data set indicated a significantly reduced effective population size (bottleneck) in the recent past for one German wildcat population.

Empirical data sets of Artiodactyla (Antilocapridae, Bovidae, Cervidae, Suidae), Carnivora (Mustelidae) and Rodentia (Sciuridae, Cricetidae, Arvicolidae, Muridae), obtained by horizontal starch el electrophoresis of 15–34 isoenzyme sstems, were used to calculate genetic distances and to construct phylogenetic trees by the following methods: Nei's D (corrected for small sample sizes) - UPGMA, FITCH, KITSCH (out of Felsenstein's PHYLIP-package); Rogers-distance - distance-Wanger tree; maximum likelihood approach (cavalli-Sforza-Edwards); maximum parsimony method (wagner); Hennigian cladogram. The results were re-examined using the statisticar methods of jackknife and bootstrap. The following problems became apparent and were studied in more detail: inconstancy of molecular evolutionary rate among taxa, non-uniformity of evolutionary rate among isoenzymes, possible convergence of alloenzymes, different evolutionary histories of taxa (radiations/bottlenecks), methodological influences sample sizes / rare alleles, comparability of data sets). The results show, that many branches of the various phylogenetic trees are fairly constant. The ambiguous position of the remaining OTU's is due to insufficient evidence in the primary data rather than to theroperties of cluster algorithms. However, since these problematic cases are also uncertain in phylogenies based on morphological characters and palaeontological results, even an increased data set may not lead to a cyear decision unless additional taxa of crucial importance are examined. Molecular evolutionary rate among taxa seems to be accelerated in some cases, possibly due to random fixation of different alleles during bottlenecks, when a highly polymorpic ancestral form underwent a series of adaptive radiations. Isoenzymes can be divided into groups with different evolutionary rates. Thus, data sets are only comparable with respect to genetic variability and differentiation, when they contain a similar amount of representatives of each of these categories.

Aim To investigate the phylogeographical patterns of red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Europe, and to disentangle the influence of ancient (e.g. Pleistocene ice ages) from more recent processes (e.g. human translocations). Location Europe. Methods In this study we provide by far the most extensive analysis of genetic structure in European red deer, based on analyses of variation at two mitochondrial markers (cyt b and D-loop) in a large number of individuals from 39 locations. Relationships of mitochondrial DNA haplotypes were determined using minimum spanning networks and phylogenetic analyses. Population structure was examined by analyses of molecular variance. Historical processes shaping the present patterns were inferred from nested clade analysis and nucleotide diversity statistics. Results Within Europe, we detected three deeply divergent mitochondrial DNA lineages. The three lineages displayed a phylogeographical pattern dividing individuals into western European, eastern European and Mediterranean (Sardinia, Spain and Africa) groups, suggesting contraction into three separate refugia during the last glaciation. Few haplotypes were shared among these three groups, a finding also confirmed by FST values. Calculations of divergence times suggest that the groups probably split during the Pleistocene. Main conclusions The observed pattern is interpreted to result from isolation in different refugia during the last glaciation. The western and eastern European lineages could be linked to an Iberian and Balkan refugium, respectively. The third lineage might originate from a Sardinian or African refugium. We link local phylogeographical patterns observed in Europe to the post-glacial recolonization process, shaped by the geographical localization of refugia and barriers to gene flow. Regardless of the importance of red deer as a game species and the tradition of translocating red deer in Europe, we detected few individuals that did not match the trichotomous pattern, suggesting that translocations have occurred mainly at smaller spatial scales.

We analysed 33 brown bears from the Romanian Carpathians and the Italian Apennines at sequences of the mitochondrial control region and nine polymorphic microsatellite loci with regard to genetic variability and haplotype distribution. The Italian brown bears were monomorphic for mtDNA sequences. The Romanian bears yielded the highest variability found so far in this species. Haplotypes of both previously identified mtDNA lineages (western and eastern) were found in Romania. In the eastern part of the Carpathians western and eastern haplotypes occurred sympatrically, the bears from the western part of the mountain range only exhibited western-type sequences. This pattern provides evidence of a mitochondrial phylogeographic break in the distribution of the eastern lineage within the Romanian Carpathians. Conservation implications of this finding are discussed.

Red deer (n = 149) from eight geographical locations, including the endangered endemic populations from the Tyrrhenian islands (Sardinia and Corsica), were analysed at eight polymorphic microsatellite loci. Two questions were addressed: (1) Is there a founder effect in the Corsican population, which was reintroduced to the island using Sardinian deer after the species’ extinction on Corsica? (2) What is the origin of the Tyrrhenian or Corsican red deer (Cervus elaphus corsicanus)? Our results showed signs of a founder effect for the red deer on Corsica in that these deer showed differentiation from the Sardinian population as measured by FST values, assignment tests (with and without a priori definition of populations) and individual-based dendrograms. Genetic variability, however, did not differ significantly between the two populations. With respect to the phylogeography of C. e. corsicanus we found that both deer from North-Africa and Mesola on the Italian mainland were genetically close to the Corsican red deer, but phylogenetic trees based on genetic distances were only poorly supported statistically. Among all populations studied the Mesola red deer showed the lowest distance values from Corsican red deer and yielded allele frequencies that were more similar to those of C. e. corsicanus than were those of North-African red deer. These results are in line with recent palaeontological and archaeozoological findings which suggest that the Corsican red deer is derived from small Italian red deer introduced from the mainland to Sardinia and Corsica during the Late Neolithic and just before the beginning of Classical Antiquity, respectively. They also suggest a possible recent introduction of Tyrrhenian red deer to North-Africa (rather than the other way around), thus accounting for the close genetic relationship (especially based on mitochondrial DNA) that has repeatedly been found between C. e. corsicanus and C. e. barbarus.

A population genetic analysis based on sequences of the mitochondrial control region in 110 red foxes from five sampling localities in northern Serbia was carried out. The analysis yielded nine different haplotypes. Neither haplotype phylogeny nor their distribution was in accordance with the geographic location of the populations. In particular, the data failed to detect an unequivocal influence of the two big rivers, the Danube and the Tisza, separating the populations studied. Population differentiation was altogether low, without any relationship to the rivers as possible migration barriers. Although the possibility of foxes crossing the rivers over bridges or by swimming, thus keeping up gene flow, cannot be ruled out, it is most probable that the control region sequences are not sensitive enough to resolve small-scale population relationships but rather show patterns determined by stochastic processes such as genetic drift or lineage sorting.

In the present study, we analysed 18 red deer specimens from a small (N = 50) and isolated population in Schleswig-Holstein, northern Germany, with respect to variability at nine polymorphic microsatellite loci and 439 bp of the mitochondrial DNA control region. Several cases of brachygnathy (shortened lower jaw), commonly associated with inbreeding depression, have been recorded in the population. Genetic variability was very low compared with other European red deer populations including the neighbouring population from which the population under study was derived some 130 years ago. The effective population size was estimated to be seven individuals corresponding to an increase in inbreeding (or a loss of heterozygosity) of 7% each generation. This value is seven times higher than the theoretical threshold level up to which natural selection is believed to counteract the fixation of deleterious alleles in the gene pool. As a consequence, the population urgently needs genetic input from other populations to overcome the negative effects of random drift and inbreeding. To our knowledge, this study is one of the first to genetically analyse a red deer population showing strong signs of inbreeding depression.

Red deer Cervus elaphus of the endangered populations from Sardinia and Mesola Wood, northern Italy, were analysed for genetic variation at 531 bp of the mitochondrial control region and 12 polymorphic nuclear microsatellite loci. A phylogenetic analysis was conducted including additional data from the literature to gain insight into the phylogeographical origin of the Sardinian subspecies C. e. corsicanus. Microsatellite variation was low in both populations but Sardinia showed comparatively high variability at the control region. Management recommendations are discussed. In particular, the Mesola red deer, the only remaining indigenous Italian population, ought to be managed to increase the effective population size and should be subdivided into two or more populations. As to the phylogeography of the Sardinian population, microsatellite data favoured mainland Italy as the place of origin in that Sardinia and Mesola showed the smallest distance values and were paired together in trees with high bootstrap support. However, the mitochondrial data only partially confirmed this conclusion but showed great similarity between Sardinian and Spanish red deer. Possible explanations for this discrepancy and general limits of mitochondrial sequences in resolving demographic and biogeographical processes of the recent past are discussed. © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2006, 88, 691–701.

Samples from 69 British red deer Cervus elaphus scoticus from seven populations in Scotland and England were analysed with respect to variability within and differentiation among stocks using 11 polymorphic microsatellite loci and 439 bp of the mitochondrial control region. The results clearly showed the effects of anthropogenic factors on British red deer. On the whole, variability values were within the species' reported range. The island population of Islay, Scotland, however, while showing average microsatellite variability, exhibited no mitochondrial variation at all. One microsatellite locus was monomorphic in three Scottish populations (Islay, Dunachton and Achnacarry). Overall and pairwise FST values indicate considerable differentiation among the populations studied, but Dunachton and Achnacarry, two adjacent populations free from recorded introductions, showed only a little differentiation and were paired in trees based on genetic distances. In terms of variability, no statistically significant differences were observed between island and mainland populations and the overall test of isolation by distance was negative. Possible reasons for the genetic patterns observed, such as differences in human impact on the populations, are discussed.

Three mainland and two island roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) populations with a total sample size of 105 individuals from Schleswig–Holstein, northern Germany, were analysed with regard to genetic variability within and differentiation among populations as revealed by eight allozyme loci known to be polymorphic in roe deer, eight microsatellite loci and 404 bp of the mitochondrial control region. Surprisingly, the allozymes were completely monomorphic, but microsatellite and control region variability were high. Hypotheses as to demographic reasons for the variability patterns found, including bottlenecks, founder effects and translocations, are put forward. There were no statistically significant differences between the island and the mainland populations in terms of genetic variability as measured by expected heterozygosity, inbreeding coefficient and allelic richness. The correlations of the various variability indices were not statistically significant after Bonferroni correction. Nevertheless, there was a clear tendency for differentiation indices to yield concordant results for microsatellite and mitochondrial markers.

Summary The present study aimed at assessing genetic purity of black wildebeest ( Connochaetes gnou ) at Abe Bailey Nature Reserve, Gauteng Province, South Africa, using a multilocus microsatellite approach. Five loci were studied in black and blue ( C. taurinus ) wildebeest, the latter being a closely related species and known to produce hybrids with the morphologically very similar black wildebeest. In fact, the entire national black wildebeest population of South Africa potentially contains a significant proportion of introgressed blue wildebeest genes. In our case, eight out of 39 alleles were unique to black and 22 to blue wildebeest, with nine alleles shared between pure populations of the two species in line with their taxonomic proximity. A possible limited past introgression of blue wildebeest genes into the Abe Bailey population, corresponding to documents on population history, was only supported by the presence of a single allele otherwise exclusively found in samples of four pure blue but not in samples of two pure black wildebeest control populations. However, an assignment test and coefficients of population divergence did not support an extended introgression of C. taurinus alleles into the C .gnou population under study. Average heterozygosity at Abe Bailey proved to be intermediate between black and blue wildebeest, the latter species generally harbouring more genetic variation than the former owing to larger population sizes and the absence of population bottlenecks in historical times. The implications of our data are discussed with reference to the persistence of introgressed genes and the conservation of pure black wildebeest gene pools.

Summary A total of 472 red deer, Cervus elaphus , from 16 free-ranging populations in France were examined for genetic variability and differentiation at 7 enzyme loci known to be polymorphic in this species. In addiditon, 73 specimens from 14 populations were examined for mtDNA differentiation using 16 six-base cutting restriction enzymes which, on the basis of 69 restriction sites, yielded altogether 5 haplotypes showing a quite variable distribution. Genetic variability within populations was quite similar, especially as far as allozymes are concerned. However, both marker systems revealed considerable genetic differentiation even at a small geographic scale, possibly suggesting that habitat fragmentation has already caused genetic isolation of local populations.

Despite an increasing acceptance in the biological community for sympatric speciation as a mode of species formation, well documented examples of sympatrically evolved ‘incipient species’ remain rare. The sympatric host races of apple maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh), represent one of the most prominent case studies for sympatric speciation via a host shift. The European cherry fruit fly, R. cerasi (L.), shows strong ecological similarities to R . pomonella : (1) infestation of two different host plants, Lonicera xylosteum L. and Prunus avium L., and (2) divergent phenological and behavioral adaptations of flies on different hosts. The population genetic study presented here addresses whether the host associated populations of R. cerasi also represent genetically differentiated true host races. Out of a total of 29 allozyme loci examined, six were polymorphic and used to analyze six sympatric pairs of R. cerasi populations on Lonicera and Prunus from Switzerland and Germany. A direct comparison of allele frequencies between sympatric sites showed no pattern indicative of host races in R. cerasi . However, the hierarchical F-statistic for one locus, mannose 6-phosphate isomerase ( Mpi ), showed significant population differentiation that was in accordance with host race differentiation. Mpi is one of several loci that are also diagnostic for host race differentiation in R. pomonella . Results from Mpi suggest the formation of sympatric host races in R. cerasi , but additional polymorphic markers are necessary.

Five south-European red deer populations from Spain, mainland Italy (Val di Susa and Tarvis), Sardinia and Bulgaria were analysed with regard to microsatellite loci and the mtDNA control region to cast light on the phylogeographic origin of the Corsican red deer which is restricted to Corsica and Sardinia. Whilst according to mtDNA haplotypes Sardinian red deer showed the closest affinity to the Spanish population, microsatellite analyses yielded completely different results in that Sardinia and Spain exhibited the greatest genetic distance whereas Tarvis was the population most closely related to Sardinia. These results are discussed including evidence as to the oldest fossil red deer remains on Sardinia. The latter could play a pivotal role regarding the decision between introduction of red deer on Corsica and Sardinia through humans in Holocene or natural settlement in Upper Pleistocene times.

Tiedemann R., Kurt F., Haberhauer A. and Hartl G. B. 1998. Differences in spatial genetic population structure between African and Asian elephant (Loxodonta africana, Elephas maximus) as revealed by sequence analysis of the mitochondrial Cyt b gene. [In: Ecological genetics in mammals III. G. B. Hartl and J. Markowski, eds). Acta Theriologica, Suppl. 5: 123-134. To assess spatial genetic population structure of both extant elephant species, we investigated sequence variation in 369bp of the mitochondrial Cyt b gene in 23 specimens of African elephant Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach, 1797) from three regions in the Southern part of Africa. In an integrated analysis, these results were compared to data of a previous study, where the same gene region had been analysed in 53 Asian elephants Elephas maximus (Linnaeus, 1758) from 5 different regions on Sri Lanka and Asian mainland. In Loxodonta, 14 polymorphic sites defined 6 different mitochondrial haplotypes with a mean sequence divergence of 2.085%. In Elephas, 6 polymorphic sites defined 8 different haplotypes with a mean sequence divergence of 0.942%. Compared to other mammals, genetic variation is high in Loxodonta and moderate in Elephas. The difference in genetic variation among the species could be explained either by a Pliocene bottleneck in Elephas or by different long term effective population sizes. In Elephas, a star like phylogeny of haplotypes was found, indicative of a population expansion after a bottleneck. In Loxodonta, very divergent mtDNA lineages coexisted, suggesting the absence of any bottleneck in population history. Within regional subpopulations, both species showed similar mean haplotype diversities, while mean nucleotide diversity within regions was higher in Loxodonta than in Elephas. This suggest larger long-term effective population sizes in Loxodonta, while short-term effective population sizes are presumably similar in both species. Spatial genetic population structure in Loxodonta is mainly determined by isolation-by-distance, while in Elephas it is impacted by human translocation. Human translocation might have prevented isolated small Elephas populations from severe genetic depletion. Institut fur Haustierkunde, Christian-Albrechts-Universitat zu Kiel, Olshausenstrase 40, D-24118 Kiel, Germany

The relationship between the straight line distances (SLD), obtained from telemetry locations, and actual distances travelled by wolves Canis lupus (ADT), measured by snowtracking, was investigated in BIalowieza Primeval Forest, E Poland, in winter 1995/96.

Huddling is effective in decreasing metabolic rate permitting energy saving. However, this decrease varies among different species depending on physical, physiological and behavioral characteristics of the huddled individuals. Following a general model authors analyzed the effects of ambient temperature, thermal conductance and ontogeny on the huddling effectiveness (energy saving level from huddling bahaviour) in white mice Mus musculus. Also, authors studied the effects of thermal conductance by using the Sigmodontine Abrothrix andinus as a model organism.

The Quaternary dispersal of the red fox Vulpes vulpes in the Mediterranean area was evaluated through the study of allelic variation at 45 enzyme loci in 120 individuals from 10 sampling sites. A 375 bp fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was also sequenced in a total of 41 specimens from the same sampling locations. Nine allozyme loci were polymorphic. The proportion of polymorphic loci per population (P) ranged from 0 to 15.6%, and expected average heterozygosity (H) from 0 to 4.4%. A total of 18 different Cyt b haplotypes were detected. Most of them were confined to only one population. Both allozyme and mtDNA data implied that our fox populations were genetically fairly isolated from one another, suggesting low gene flow between them. This isolation should be of comparatively recent origin according to the slight differentiation among Cyt b haplotypes. Fox populations appeared to belong to two genetically distinct groups. With a mean value of Nei’s D = 0.024, genetic distance between these groups was similar to that detected at subspecies level in taxa of large mammals. This pattern may have originated from different colonization waves during Quaternary glaciations and deglaciations. Red foxes from Sardinia were more closely related to the Bulgarian foxes than to the Iberian ones. However, repeated introductions to Sardinia probably also occurred from Central Italy and Spain, as suggested by the presence of haplotype A and a typical Central Italian allele, Ck-290

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is a highly adaptable omnivorous mammal distributed across all continents on the northern hemisphere. Although the red fox is present throughout Europe, where it plays an important ecological and socio-economic role not only as a game species but also as a rabies reservoir, few studies have examined its population-level mitochondrial DNA variability. In this study, 27 mitochondrial DNA control region haplotypes were identified in 229 red fox samples taken from four regions in Croatia. Haplotype diversity of Croatian red foxes (0.901) was found to be among the highest of all European red fox populations studied to date. Genetic differentiation among regions was quite low, and statistically significant estimates of differentiation were obtained only when comparing the population from the peninsular region of Istria with the three continental populations. It seems that landscape barriers like rivers and small mountains do not restrict gene flow among foxes in the continental part of Croatia, while the combination of a narrow land bridge and altitudes exceeding 1, 000 m limit fox migration between Istria and the rest of the continent. Better understanding of small-scale population structure will require analysis of highly variable nuclear markers like microsatellites.

To investigate phylogenetic relationships among 9 genera of the Caprinae (Capra, Ammotragus, Hemitragus, Pseudois, Ouis, Rupicapra, Oreamnos, Nemorhaedus, Capricornis) behaviours involved in courtship and mating, aggression, threat, dominance, submission, and marking of adult males were subjected to phylogenetic analysis. Based on all 32 characters and 96 character states investigated, phylogenetic patterns generally were in good agreement with biochemical-genetic data avaliable. Discordance between phylogenetic trees constructed from behavioural and from biochemical-genetic traits as to the position of Ammotragus turned out to be associated with ethological functional categories. Behaviours involved in courtship and mating were identified as the most reliable ones for phylogenetic studies. Courtship displays function as isolation mechanisms among closely related taxa. This is of paramount importance in those forms where secondary sexual characters such as horns are poorly differentiated while in highly evolved taxa size and shape of horns may also trigger readiness for mating in estrous females.

proportion of polymorphic loci (P) was 3.5% (SD = 1.2%), and mean expected average heterozygosity (He) was 0.9% (SD = 0.25%). The populations separated out by genetic distance in two distinct groups, those from the Cape Province and those from the Orange Free State. There were considerable differences in mean body weight between some sites. No correlation could be detected with level of heterozygosity. Body weight appeared rather to be related to liver mineral levels. In particular the ratio between copper and molybdenium appears important with those animals high in copper and low in molybdenium having a higher body weight.

In Asian elephant Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758 tuskless bulls or maknas are generally rare. Only in Sri Lanka 93% of subadult and adult bulls have been reported to be maknas. Using historical records and computer simulations we demonstrate that simulation in man-made. The following mechanisms were identified to be associated with a loss of tuskers: (1) When using elephants, man has always preffered tuskers. (2) Selective hunting and capturing frequently led to a decrease of tuskers in wild-living populations. (3) The impact of selective unting and capturing was highest in isolated populations, such as Sri Lanka. (4) Selective removal of tuskers for protecting a maximum wild-living male population resulted in an increase of maknas.

In order to examine a previously hypothesized influence of selective hunting on allele frequency changes at some regularly polymorphic allozyme loci in red deer (Cervus eluphus), antler characters, serving as criteria for culling, were examined in relation to electrophoretic variation in two free-ranging populations of the Vosges, Eastern France, and an enclosure in Central France. When homozygous for the allele Idh-2125, stags ≥ 2 years old had a significantly higher number of antler points (NAP). When homozygous for the allele Acp-2100, stags older than 5 years had antlers that were significantly larger for a number of traits (NAP, main beam length and circumference, coronet circumference, brow tine length). Among younger stags, all antler traits in Acp-2100 homozygotes were significantly smaller than in carriers of the alternative allele, Acp-285. Our data suggest the presence of at least two independent genetic components (one associated with early development of a high NAP, the other with generally large antler size in adults), affecting antler expression in red deer. Those genetic components, possibly major genes which are chromosomally linked with the allozyme loci studied, compensate or reinforce each other in their phenotypic effects. By playing a role in balancing benefits and costs of male reproductive success, they may be part of a genetic mechanism enabling the rapid adaptation of a population to various environmental and demographic conditions. The three populations studied originate from one another, and, based on an assessment of effective population sizes, it could be demonstrated that selective hunting for antler shape has changed allelic frequencies at the associated marker loci within a few generations.

Genetic variation in an isolated brown bear population of the Western Carpathians was studied by electrophoretic analysis of 51 presumptive allozyme loci. In spite of a severe population bottleneck at the beginning of the 1930s (40 survivors), average heterozygosity (H=5.3%) was within the range commonly found in mammals and the mean number of alleles per polymorphic locus (Ap=3, over five polymorphic loci) was very high. Possible reasons for the maintenance of high allelic variation are discussed.

Starch gel electrophoresis was used to screen 35 lowland bison from the herd in the Biazlowieza Primeval Forest for genetic variation at 69 presumptive structural loci. Average heterozygosity (H = 1.2%) proved to be three times lower than that based on 20 loci (H = 3.5%) reported in a previous study by other authors. These earlier results were interpreted as evidence that the passage of the species through an extreme genetic bottleneck (12 founder genomes) had not had much influence on genetic variation. A comparison of estimates of H and the proportion of polymorphic loci (P) among different species or populations of Artiodactyla revealed that P was the only parameter to be significantly reduced in those that had experienced genetic bottlenecks. However, the data also show that, in spite of similar H values in species or populations with or without bottlenecks, average heterozygosity is only useful as an indicator of overall genetic variability in the latter. To draw conclusions about genetic depletion on the basis ofelectrophoretic data, we strongly recommend that H, together with its variance among a large number of loci, and additional parameters such as P and the ratio H:P be taken into account. Se utilizo electroforesis con gel de almidon para determinar la variacion genotipica en 69 loci estructurales presuntivos de 35 bisones del rebano de la Foresta Artica de Biazlowieza. La heterocigosidad promedio (H = 1.2%) resulto ser tres veces menor que aquella basada en 20 loci (H = 3.5%), reportada en estudios previos de otros autores. Estos resultados anteriores fueron interpretados como evidencia de que el paso de la especie por un cuello de botella extremo (12 genomas fundadores) no tuvo mucha influencia en la variabilidad genetica. Una comparacion de las estimaciones de H y la proporcion de loci polimorfocos (P) entre diferentes especies o poblaciones de Artiodactyla revelo que P era el unico paarametro a ser reducido significativamente en aquellas que experimentaron cuellos de botella geneticos. Sin embargo, los datos tambien muestran que, a pesar de los valores similares de H en especies/poblaciones con o sin cuellos de botella, la heterosigocidad promedio solo es util como un indicador de la variabilidad genetica en estas ultimas. Nosotros recomendamos que para obtener concluciones sobre agotamiento genetico basadas en datos electroforeticos se tomen en cuenta H y su varianza entre un alto numero de loci, asi como tambien parametros adicionales taies como P y la relacion H:P.

Kurt P., Hartl G. B. and Volk F. 1993. Breeding strategies and genetic variation in European roe deer Capreolus capreolus populations. [In: Ecological genetics in mam­ mals. G. B. Hartl and J. Markowski, eds], Acta theriol. 38, Suppl. 2: 187 - 194. Based on previously published electrophoretic data on genetic variability in 31 roe deer Capreolus capreolus Linnaeus, 1758 populations, the proportion of loci poly­ morphic (P), average heterozygosity (H), and the inbreeding coefficient (Fis) were examined for relationships with the social structure displayed in the various-popu­ lations. Our hypothesis was that genetic variability is lower and F/s-values are more positive in populations where males maintain a stable pattern of territories during the rutting season (forest dwelling roe deer) than in those characterized by pronounced fluctuations in population structure, both within and among seasons (field or mountain dwelling roe deer). P and H did not show differences among those two groups. Fis was significantly more positive in the ‘forest’ roe deer than in the more migratory ‘type’, but only when populations subjected to high culling rates were excluded from the analysis. Highly negative Fis-values in forest populations with high culling rates suggested that considerable perturbations of population structure may be caused by hunting. In conclusion, the ‘forest’ roe deer and the ‘field’ roe deer do not represent two distinct ecotypes with a particular genetic integrity, but rather reflect the consid­ erable behavioural plasticity of the species. Forschungsinstitut fur Wildtierkunde und Okologie der Veterinarmedizinischen Uni­ versitat Wien, Savoyenstrase 1, A-1160 Vienna, Austria (FK, GBH, FV)

A total of 469 brown hares Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778 from 20 sampling sites in Austria were examined for genetic diversity within and among populations by means of horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. Fourteen out of 54 presumptive structural loci were polymorphic, one of which was excluded from further population genetic analyses due to the occurrence of a null-allele.

Biochemical-genetic variation was studied in springbok Antidorcas m. marsupialis (Zimmermann, 1780) from a large (N>2000) "wild" population (n=24) and a small (30>N>20) isolated farm population (n=10) using electrophoretic allozyme analysis. Springbok showed polymorphisms at eight out of 46 loci.

European red deer are known to show a conspicuous phylogeographic pattern with three distinct mtDNA lineages (western, eastern and North-African/Sardinian). The western lineage, believed to be indicative of a southwestern glacial refuge in Iberia and southern France, nowadays covers large areas of the continent including the British Isles, Scandinavia and parts of central Europe, while the eastern lineage is primarily found in southeast-central Europe, the Carpathians and the Balkans. However, large parts of central Europe and the whole northeast of the continent were not covered by previous analyses. To close this gap, we produced mtDNA control region sequences from more than 500 red deer from Denmark, Germany, Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine and western Russia and combined our data with sequences available from earlier studies to an overall sample size of almost 1,100. Our results show that the western lineage extends far into the European east and is prominent in all eastern countries except for the Polish Carpathians, Ukraine and Russia where only eastern haplotypes occurred. While the latter may actually reflect the natural northward expansion of the eastern lineage after the last ice age, the present distribution of the western lineage in eastern Europe may in large parts be artificial and a result of translocations and reintroduction of red deer into areas where the species became extinct in historical times.

A total of 193 brown hares, collected from 7 sampling sites in Poland during 1986-1990 were examined for genetic variability and differentiation at 39 presumptive isozyme loci by means of horizontal starch gel electropheresis.

In order to provide a scale of genetic distances in the Lagomorpha, biochemicalsystematic relationships among Lepus europaeus, Lepus iimidus, Oryctolagus cuniculus (Leporidae) and Ochotona rufescens (Ochotonidae) were examined by horizontal starch gel electrophoresis of 38 isozyme systems. Nei's (1978) genetic distances were calculated over 58 presumptive structural loci and used for the construction of numerical dendrograms. The stability of clusters was examined by the jackknife method and by comparison to a Hennigian cladogram. All these procedures revealed a constant picture of lagomorph relationships, which is in accordance with the conclusions drawn from other evidence. Divergence times were estimated using two fundamentally different approaches. They were in good agreement with paleontological data (0.49myr between the Lepus species, 3.65myr between Lepus and Oryctolagus, 37.5myr between Leporidae and Ochotonidae), but only when calculated in different ways at low and at high taxonomic levels. The results suggest a temporal acceleration of the rate of allozyme evolution in the Leporidae due to rapid adaptive radiation of biochemically highly polymorphic taxa.

A total of 598 Austrian and 1117 Polish skulls of brown hare Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778 was examined for dental anomalies, occurrence of Wormian bones and formation of a fenestra in the fossa mandibularis ossis temporalis. In addition, the degree of ossification of skull sutures and frequencies of traceable interparietal sutures were analysed in Austrian hares.

A total of 189 domestic rabbits from 10 different strains and 45 wild rabbits from 2 populations were examined for genetic variability and differentiation in 35 enzyme systems by means of horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. From 49 putative loci scored, 8 were polymorphic: Pgd, Pgm-2, Es-I, Alp, s-Gal, Acy-1, Mpi, and Gpi-1. Values of polymorphism (mean P = 7.32%, sd. = 2.93 %) and expected average heterozygosity (mean H = 2.15, sd. = 0.39) are lower than those detected in previous investigations. This is partly due to the breeding history of domestic strains, but also to differences in the number and composition of enzyme systems studied. Relative genetic differentiation (GST = 0.333) among all populations is high and mainly the result of breeding objects pursued in the various domestic strains (GST = 0.052 among populations of the wild rabbit). Absolute genetic distances among domestic strains or between wild and domestic rabbits vary between D-values typical for local populations and D-values typical for subspecies. However, those between wild and domestic rabbits are not necessarily larger than those among the latter. Numerical dendrograms and calculations of divergence times do not give reasonable estimates of phylogenies in domestication studies due to very different rates of molecular evolution among breeds. Zusammenfassung Die genetische Variabilitat und Differenzierung von insgesamt 189 Hauskaninchen 10 verschiedener Rassen und von 45 Wildkaninchen aus 2 Populationen in 35 Enzymsystemen wurde mittels der horizontalen Starkegelelektrophorese ermittelt. Von 49 auswertbaren hypothetischen Genloci zeigten 8 einen Polymorphismus: Pgd, Pgm-2, Es-I, Alp, s-Gal, Acy-1, Mpi und Gpi-1. Der Prozentsatz polymorpher Loci (durchschn. P = 7.32 %, s = 2.93 %) und der durchschnittliche erwartete Heterozygotiegrad (durchschn. H = 2.15 %, s = 0.39 %) sind geringer, als sie in vorhergehenden Arbeiten ermittelt wurden. Dies ist zum Teil auf die Bestandesgeschichte der Hauskaninchenrassen, aber auch auf Unterschiede in der Anzahl und Zusammensetzung der untersuchten Enzyme zuruckzufuhren. Die relative genetische Differenzierung (GST = 0.333) zwischen allen untersuchten Populationen ist ziemlich hoch und beruht vor allem auf zuchterischen Einflussen auf die Hauskaninchenrassen (GST bei den Wildkaninchen = 0.052). Die absoluten genetischen Distanzen zwischen den Hauskaninchenrassen, wie auch zwischen Wild- und Hauskaninchen, schwanken zwischen typischen D-Werten fur Lokalpopulationen und typischen D-Werten fur Unterarten, sind jedoch zwischen Wild-und Hauskaninchen nicht unbedingt groser als zwischen Rassen des letzteren. Numerische Dendrogramme und Berechnungen von Divergenzzeiten ergeben bei phylogenetischen Ansatzen in der Domestikationsforscnung aufgrund der unterschiedlichen molekularen Evolutionsraten zwischen Rassen keine verlaslichen Werte.

Within the rodent family Muridae, eight species of the genera Apodemus, Mus and Rattus were examined for allozyme differentiation in 29 proteins encoded by 36 presumptive genetic loci. Representatives of the families Arvicolidae ( Microtus arvalis, Clethrionomys glareolus ) and Cricetidae ( Cricetus cricetus ) were used as outgroups. Thirty-three loci were found to be polymorphic within species and differentially diagnostic between species, respectively. Rooted and unrooted dendrograms, based on various genetic distances, revealed relationships between A. sylvaticus, A. flavicollis and A. microps as well as between M. musculus, M. spretus and M. caroli , which are consistent with the results of previous investigations. In contrast, A. agrarius showed a greater genetic distance to the other Apodemus species than either Rattus or Mus . Based on a Hennigian cladogram and on results of DNA investigations performed by other authors, this result was interpreted to be due to an increased rate of allozyme evolution in this species rather than to a very isolated position within the Muridae. Concerning intergeneric relationships, a UPGMA-tree unequivocally suggested Mus to be the sister group of Apodemus , whereas the cladogram revealed the ambiguous position of this genus in relation to Mus and Rattus . As demonstrated by comparison of two fundamentally different methods for estimating divergence times, this result can be explained by a rapid separation of the genera in question during extensive adaptive radiation. As a consequence of unequal rates of allozyme evolution among taxa, use of both numerical and cladistic approaches for the evaluation of phylogenies is emphasized.

We analyzed 121 golden jackals (Canis aureus) from six sample sites in Serbia with regard to genetic variability and differentiation as revealed by mitochondrial control region sequences and eight nuclear microsatellite loci. There was no variation at all in the mtDNA sequences, and nuclear variability was very low (average observed and expected heterozygosity of 0.29 and 0.34, respectively). This is in line with the considerable recent range expansion of this species in the Balkans and indicates a strong founder effect in the recently established Serbian population. We did not find evidence of differentiation between the northeastern jackals and those from the plain of Srem or those in between. F-statistics and Bayesian Structure analyses, however, were indicative of a low degree of overall differentiation in the Serbian population. A vagrant Austrian jackal that was also analyzed was genetically indistinguishable from its Serbian conspecifics.

Um die biochemisch-genetische Variabilitat beim Mufflon(Ovis ammon musimon) zu ermitteln, wurden bei insgesamt 34 Tieren aus 4 verschiedenen Bestanden 31 Isoenzymsysteme mittels horizontaler Starkegelelektrophorese und enzymspezifischer Nachweismethoden untersucht. Von 46 auswertbaren Genloci zeigte sich nur an einem(Es-2) ein genetischer Polymorphismus. Mit einer durchschnittlichen Polymorphierate von 2,2 % und einer durchschnittlichen Heterozygotierate von 1,1 % gehort das Muffelwild unter den bisher untersuchten Grossaugern zu den Arten mit der geringsten biochemisch-genetischen Variabilitat. Als wahrscheinlichste Ursache fur diesen Befund wird die von geringen Individuenzahlen ausgehende Einburgerung dieses Wildschafes auf dem europaischen Festland vermutet; es werden jedoch auch andere mogliche Einflusgrosen, wie die prahistorische Bestandesgeschichte der Art und die Kladogenese der Caprini diskutiert.

In seven species of the Caprini, and two species of the Rupicaprini, 23 proteins encoded by 27 presumptive genetic loci were studied by horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. An antelope, the nilgai ( Boselaphus tragocamelus ) was used as outgroup. Nineteen loci were found to be polymorphic and differential diagnostic, respectively. Phylogenetic trees were constructed using various quantitative and qualitative approaches. The largest genetic distance was detected between Ovis and Capra . The Rupicaprini ( Rupicapra rupicapra, Oreamnos americanus ) turned out to be an intermediate group between Ovis and Capra and are connected to the latter by Hemitragus jemlahicus and Ammotragus lervia . Genetic distances among Capra falconeri, Capra aegagrus and C. a. f. hircus suggest a monophyletic origin of domestic goats from the latter. The high D -value between Capra ibex ibex and C. i. nubiana gives species rank for the Nubian goat. According to biochemical-genetic data the splitting of the Caprinae into the tribes Rupicaprini and Caprini is not justified. Calculated divergence times of the main taxa (late Pliocene-early Pleistocene) correspond to palaeontological findings.

The publisher regrets that in the above article an error occurred in affiliations for one of the authors. After the name of J. Paul Grobler the small a is missing.

A genetic polymorphism of sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH; EC 1.1.1.14) for two allozymes is demonstrated in the brown hare (Lepus europaeus) by means of horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. Segregation analysis was performed in a sample of four matings with 12 offspring and confirmed the genetic hypothesis: two alleles at an autosomal locus. The calculated gene frequencies in the brown hare breed studied are Sdha = 0.712 and Sdhb = 0.288. The distribution of the polymorphism in free-ranging brown hare populations from Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland is described.

Thirty-three random decanucleotide primers were tested for polymorphisms in a fenced Italian population of fallow deer Dama dama (Linnaeus, 1758) and 23 primers provided reproducible amplification patterns.