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Understanding the stress evolution of extinct volcanoes can improve efforts to forecast flank eruptions on active systems. Field, petrographic, and seismic data are combined with numerical modeling to investigate the paleo-stress field of New Zealand's Akaroa Volcano, or Akaroa Volcanic Complex. Field mapping identifies 86 radially oriented dikes and seven lava domes found only within a narrow elevation range along Akaroa's erosional crater rim. These observations suggest that crater rim dike emplacement resulted from lateral deflection of vertically ascending intrusions from a centralized magma source, which in turn may have facilitated formation of the lava domes, as well as two scoria cones. We postulate that dike deflection occurred along a stress barrier, as neither a compositional change nor structural boundary are present. We use a finite element model (FEM) simulating Akaroa to test how different factors may have influenced the system's stress state and dike geometry. Elastic, non-flexural ("roller") model configurations containing a large, oblate, and shallow magma chamber produce stress barriers most conducive to radial dike emplacement along Akaroa's crater rim. These configurations also simulate rapid edifice construction above a preexisting lithospheric "bulge." Conversely, simulating flexural stresses exerted on the lithosphere by Akaroa's large mass hinder rather than promote radial dike emplacement. Temperature-dependent viscoelastic relaxation promotes gradual increases in stress barrier elevation, though this effect is strongly dependent on magma chamber parameters. These results suggest that Akaroa was constructed rapidly (within ∼100 kyr) prior to crater rim dike emplacement, which occurred throughout the volcano's remaining active lifespan.

Moving beyond the widely used kinematic models for the deformation sources, we present a new dynamic model to describe the process of injecting magma into an existing magma reservoir. To validate this model, we derive an analytical solution and compare its results to those calculated using the Finite Element Method. A Newtonian fluid characterized by its viscosity, density, and overpressure (relative to the lithostatic value) flows through a vertical conduit, intruding into a reservoir embedded in an elastic domain, leading to an increase in reservoir pressure and time‐dependent surface deformation. We apply our injection model to Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) data from the ongoing unrest episode at Laguna del Maule (Chile) volcanic field that started in 2007. Using a grid search optimization, we minimize the misfit to the InSAR displacement data and vary the three parameters governing the analytical solution: the characteristic timescale τ P for magma propagation, the maximum injection pressure, and the inflection time when the acceleration switches from positive to negative. For a spheroid with semimajor axis a = 6200 m, semiminor axis c = 100 m, located at a depth of 4.5 km in a purely elastic half‐space, the best fit to the InSAR displacement data occurs for τ P=9.5 years and an injection pressure rising up to 11.5 MPa for 2 years. The volume flow rate increased to 1.2 m3/s for 2 years and then decreased to 0.7 m3/s in 2014. In 7.3 years, at least 187 × 106 m3 of magma was injected., Key Points Our analytical and numerical model describes viscous magma propagation into a reservoirIncreasing conduit inlet pressure and volumetric flow rate accounts for the accelerating upliftAt least 187 million cubic meters of magma with viscosity 100 MPa s was injected between 2007 and 2014

The accumulation of sizeable volumes of magma in the upper crust may produce plutons and/or result in supereruptions. Geophysical observations provide constraints on the rates, volumes, and melt distributions in magmatic systems, but they suffer from limited resolution and inherent nonuniqueness. Different, yet complementary, geophysical approaches must be combined with petrological, laboratory, and geochemical measurements. We summarize the results from such a combined approach from the central Andes. Taking a global perspective on large silicic systems reveals that several have >10% partial melt over large areas (10s of km2), and there may be localized zones with 50% or more.

We use numerical models to study the mechanical stability of magma reservoirs embedded in elastic host rock. We quantify the overpressure required to open tensile fractures (the failure overpressure), as a function of the depth and the size of the reservoir, the loading by the volcanic edifice, and the pore fluid pressure in the crust. We show that the pore fluid pressure is the most important parameter controlling the magnitude of the failure overpressure rather than the reservoir depth and the edifice load. Under lithostatic pore fluid pressure conditions, the failure overpressure is on the order of the rock tensile strength (a few tens of megapascals). Under zero pore fluid pressure conditions, the failure overpressure increases linearly with depth (a few hundreds of megapascals at 5 km depth). We use our models to forecast the failure displacement (the cumulative surface displacement just before an eruption) on volcanoes showing unrest: Sinabung and Agung (Indonesia) and Okmok and Westdahl (Aleutian). By comparison between our forecast and the observation, we provide valuable constraint on the pore fluid pressure conditions on the volcanic system. At Okmok, the occurrence of the 2008 eruption can be explained with a 1,000 m reservoir embedded in high pore fluid pressure, whereas the absence of eruption at Westdahl better suggests that the pore fluid pressure is much lower than lithostatic. Our finding suggests that the pore fluid pressure conditions around the reservoir may play an important role in the triggering of an eruption by encouraging or discouraging the failure of the reservoir.

In this study, we utilize thermomechanical models to investigate how magma chambers overpressurize as the result of either magmatic recharge or volatile exsolution. By implementing an adaptive reservoir boundary condition we are able to track how overpressure dissipates as the magma chamber expands to accommodate internal volume changes. We find that the size of the reservoir greatly impacts the resultant magma chamber overpressure. In particular, overpressure estimates for small to moderate-sized reservoirs (1–10 km 3 ) are up to 70% lower than previous analytical predictions. We apply our models to Santorini volcano in Greece where recent seismic activity and ground deformation observations suggested the potential for eruption. The incorporation of an adaptive boundary condition reproduces Mogi flux estimates and suggests that the magma reservoir present at Santorini may be quite large. Furthermore, model results suggest that if the magma chamber is >100 km 3 , overpressures generated due to the high magma flux may not exceed the strength of the host rock, thus requiring an additional triggering mechanism for eruption. Although the adaptive boundary condition approach does not calculate the internal evolution of the magma reservoir, it represents a fundamental step forward from elastic Mogi models and fixed boundary solutions on which future investigations of the evolution of the magma can be built.

We present new analyses of volatile, major, and trace elements for a suite of glasses and melt inclusions from the 85°E segment of the ultra-slow spreading Gakkel Ridge. Samples from this segment include limu o pele and glass shards, proposed to result from CO2-driven explosive activity. The major element and volatile compositions of the melt inclusions are more variable and consistently more primitive than the glass data. CO2 contents in the melt inclusions extend to higher values (167–1596 ppm) than in the co-existing glasses (187–227 ppm), indicating that the melt inclusions were trapped at greater depths. These melt inclusions record the highest CO2 melt concentrations observed for a ridge environment. Based on a vapor saturation model, we estimate that the melt inclusions were trapped between seafloor depths (∼ 4 km) and ∼ 9 km below the seafloor. However, the glasses are all in equilibrium with their eruption depths, which is inconsistent with the rapid magma ascent rates expected for explosive activity. Melting conditions inferred from thermobarometry suggest relatively deep (25–40 km) and cold (1240°–1325 °C) melting conditions, consistent with a thermal structure calculated for the Gakkel Ridge. The water contents and trace element compositions of the melt inclusions and glasses are remarkably homogeneous; this is an unexpected result for ultra-slow spreading ridges, where magma mixing is generally thought to be less efficient based on the assumption that steady-state crustal magma chambers are absent in these environments. All melts can be described by a single liquid line of descent originating from a pooled melt composition that is consistent with the aggregate melt calculated from a geodynamic model for the Gakkel Ridge. These data suggest a model in which deep, low degree melts are efficiently pooled in the upper mantle (9–20 km depth), after which crystallization commences and continues during ascent and eruption. Based on our melting model and the assumption that CO2 is perfectly incompatible, we show that the highest CO2 concentrations of the melt inclusions (∼ 1600 ppm) are consistent with the calculated CO2 concentrations of primary undegassed melts. The highest measured CO2/Nb ratio (443) of Gakkel Ridge melt inclusions predicts a mantle CO2 content of 134 ppm and would result in a global ridge flux of 2.0 × 1012 mol CO2/yr.

High-resolution magnetic data collected along the axis and the south flank of the Puna Ridge, the submarine extension of the East Rift Zone of Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii, aid in the interpretation of magmatic processes. Crustal magnetization varies along the crest of the Puna Ridge. Three prominent magnetization highs are located between the depths of 1500 and 2500 m. Each of the magnetization highs is associated with distinct volcanic features: a flow field on top of fissured terrain, a lava plateau, and a staircase of lava terraces. The crustal magnetization highs can be explained by the presence of these volcanic features, taking into account water depth and the size of the volcanic features and making simple assumptions about the rock magnetization. No measurements of rock magnetization have been made on Puna Ridge samples. We assume two values: 50 and 10 A/m, based on values from mid-ocean ridge basalts and the estimated ages of Puna Ridge rocks [Clague et al., 1995]. The two shallowest magnetization highs are adjacent to a landslide scarp. Lava flows overtop the scarp suggesting that a dike has been emplaced and eruptions have occurred since the landslide formed. A possible scenario is that the collapse of the flank led to dike intrusion and eruption at this location because of a reduction in the horizontal stress within the edifice. Our observations suggest that flows are starting to fill in the gap caused by the landslide to rebuild this section of the north flank.

[1] We examine mantle melting, fractional crystallization, and melt extraction beneath fast slipping, segmented oceanic transform fault systems. Three-dimensional mantle flow and thermal structures are calculated using a temperature-dependent rheology that incorporates a viscoplastic approximation for brittle deformation in the lithosphere. Thermal solutions are combined with the near-fractional, polybaric melting model of Kinzler and Grove (1992a, 1992b, 1993) to determine extents of melting, the shape of the melting regime, and major element melt composition. We investigate the mantle source region of intratransform spreading centers (ITSCs) using the melt migration approach of Sparks and Parmentier (1991) for two end-member pooling models: (1) a wide pooling region that incorporates all of the melt focused to the ITSC and (2) a narrow pooling region that assumes melt will not migrate across a transform fault or fracture zone. Assuming wide melt pooling, our model predictions can explain both the systematic crustal thickness excesses observed at intermediate and fast slipping transform faults as well as the deeper and lower extents of melting observed in the vicinity of several transform systems. Applying these techniques to the Siqueiros transform on the East Pacific Rise we find that both the viscoplastic rheology and wide melt pooling are required to explain the observed variations in gravity inferred crustal thickness. Finally, we show that mantle potential temperature Tp = 1350°C and fractional crystallization at depths of 9–15.5 km fit the majority of the major element geochemical data from the Siqueiros transform fault system.