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Durian (Durio zibethinus) fruit processing discards out waste shells, which accounts for more than 60 % by weight of the fruit into landfills, leading to serious issues regarding environmental pollution and public health risks. Despite the extensive research available on converting this biomass source into high carbon content biochar, little has been discussed on its susceptibility towards microbial degradation and fungal growth and the effects these contaminations may have on the obtained products. In this study, two types of durian shells, composted and non-composted types are collected by an evaluation of pretreatment conditions, and carbonised for recovery of biochar material. FTIR, SEM and TGA/DTG were utilised to show significant differences in the structure and thermal properties between the composted durian shell and the non-contaminated one. By making use of these differences, for the first time ever, novel briquetting methods of mechanically pressing at normal and elevated temperature were applied on composted shells to produce biochar fuels with varying shapes and combustion properties to suit different applications. A higher yield of more than 50 % with a higher fixed carbon content of up to 51 % could be attained without any need for a binding material from the composted material by the pressing method with incorporation of heat. The results from this research can encourage developing different approaches towards making use of source materials with recalcitrant structures for specific desirable properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, durian rind-derived (DR) biochar was used for MnII and FeIII removal from aqueous solution. The removal test was conducted on a batch scale with known concentrations of MnII and FeIII solutions (5-50 mg/L) at pH 2, 4, 7 and 9. The results showed that the precipitation mechanism dominated at basic pH values while adsorption was the main mechanism under acidic conditions. Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms were used in this study to identify the adsorption behavior. The maximum adsorption capacities of MnII and FeIII by the biochar were 24.16 and 16.92 mg/g, respectively. The maximum adsorption ability of MnII onto the biochar was higher than that of FeIII, which was attributed to the ionic radius and electronegativity of metal ions. Two ground-water samples representing MnII-rich (named HL with 11 mg/L Mn) and FeIII-rich (named RT with 37 mg/L Fe) samples collected from locations close to gold mines were used for the removal tests. Almost 100% of both metals were removed, even under acidic conditions (pH 4). Due to its high efficiency and low cost, DR biochar shows great promise as an attractive adsorbent for metal-ions removal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global water pollution by various pollutants is becoming an urgent problem. The conversion of durian fruit waste into adsorbents can help to mitigate this issue. Transforming durian waste into adsorbents can reduce pollution risk from waste discharged directly into the environment, while also effectively eliminating existing contaminants. Here, this work explores the potential of durian fruit waste and supplies insights into the synthesis and application of durian fruit waste-derived adsorbents such as biosorbents, modified-biosorbents, biochars, activated carbons, and composites. Several factors affecting the adsorption process of pollutants and the mechanism how pollutants can be adsorbed onto durian fruit waste-derived adsorbents are elucidated. This review also analyzes some aspects of limitations and prospects of biosorbents derived from durian fruit waste. It is anticipated that the promising properties and applications of durian fruit waste-derived adsorbents open up a new field for water waste treatment. [Display omitted] • Sustainable and effective bioasorbents can be produced from durian fruit waste. • Chemical activation is the most critical step to increase surface area and porosity. • Durian fruit waste-adsorbents can easily remove dyes, heavy metals, and antibiotics. • Prominent reusability of durian fruit waste-adsorbents was obtained, with 5–6 cycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

CuCoFe-LDO/BCD was successfully synthesized from CuCoFe-LDH and biochar derived from durian shell (BCD). Ciprofloxacin (CFX) degraded more than 95% mainly by O 2 •− and 1O 2 in CuCoFe-LDO/BCD(2/1)/PMS system within 10 min with a rate constant of 0.255 min−1, which was 14.35 and 2.66 times higher than those in BCD/PMS and CuCoFe-LDO/PMS systems, respectively. The catalytic system exhibited good performance over a wide pH range (3–9) and high degradation efficiency of other antibiotics. Built-in electric field (BIEF) driven by large difference in the work function/Fermi level ratio between CuCoFe-LDO and BCD accelerated continuous electron transfer from CuCoFe-LDO to BCD to result in two different microenvironments with opposite charges at the interface, which enhanced PMS adsorption and activation via different directions. As a non-radical, 1O 2 was mainly generated via PMS activation by C=O in BCD. The presence of C=O in BCD resulted in an increase in atomic charge of C in C=O and redistributed the charge density of other C atoms. As a result, strong adsorption of PMS at C atom in C=O and other C with a high positive charge was favorable for 1O 2 generation, whereas an enhanced adsorption of PMS at negatively charged C accounted for the generation of •OH and SO 4 •−. After adsorption, electrons in C of BCD became deficient and were fulfilled with those transferred from CuCoFe-LDO driven by BIEF, which ensured the high catalytic activity of CuCoFe-LDO/BCD. O 2 •−, on the other hand, was generated via several pathways that involved in the transformation of •OH and SO 4 •− originated from PMS activation by the transition of metal species in CuCoFe-LDO and negatively charged C in BCD. This study proposed a new idea of fabricating a low-cost metal-LDH and biomass-derived catalyst with a strong synergistic effect induced by BIEF for enhancing PMS activation and antibiotic degradation. [Display omitted] • Durian peel-derived biochar enhances CFX degradation in CuCoFe-LDO/BCD/PMS by 1.48 times. • The role of C=O in BCD for PMS activation and 1O 2 generation is confirmed by DFT calculations. • A new pathway for 1O 2 generation via PMS activation by C=O is proposed. • Built-in electric field between CuCoFe-LDO and BCD accelerates electron transfer and enhances PMS activation. • CFX degradation is contributed mainly by both radical (O 2 •−) and non-radical (1O 2). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In assessing the feasibility of carbonization for the treatment of durian shell, a large-scale (10 T) fuel briquette manufacturing line is evaluated, taking into consideration the actual processing time and the effect of the biomass high moisture content on overall efficiency. The fuel product exhibits a high higher heating value (HHV) (33.21 MJ/kg) but with a low production efficiency (10 %) and a high cost of production (0.55 USD/kg briquette). One alternate biorefinery process was proposed to turn durian shells into much higher value materials, including high-methoxyl pectin (DE > 90 %), high surface area activated carbon (>300 m2/g) and mineral-rich biochar, with higher recovery efficiency and selling prices, most notably pectin at 40 USD/kg. The results from this study are then used to provide recommendations for feasible treatment, not only for durian shells but also for a variety of different complex and highly recalcitrant biomass in pursuit of a more sustainable agricultural production. [Display omitted] • High pectin and moisture contents of durian shells affect the processing efficiency. • Transportation cost and actual processing time must be considered in manufacturing. • A cascading approach for high-value products like pectin can be beneficial. • Novel technologies for preservation, pretreatment and processing are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Durian chitosan/magnetic biochar (CMDSB) was prepared from durian shell by magnetic modification and chitosan modification. The prepared CMDSB was used to adsorb methylene blue in simulated dye wastewater, and the adsorption effect and mechanism of CMDSB on methylene blue were studied. The experimental results show that the removal rate of 160 mg/L methylene blue solution by CMDSB can reach 96.96%, when the adsorption time is 30 min. CMDSB has very good adsorption effect on methylene blue in the range of pH 5~12. The results of Freundlich isothermal adsorption equation were good (P<0.01), it shows that the adsorption is mainly multilayer adsorption; the adsorption kinetic conforms to the secondorder kinetic model, it shows that the adsorption is mainly chemical adsorption. SEM, XRD, FT-IR and BET analysis showed that iron was successfully loaded on biochar, and after chitosan modification, the types of functional groups on the surface of CMDSB increased significantly, providing many active sites for chemical adsorption. CMDSB can be recycled for many times, after five times of recycling, the removal rate of methylene blue is still 73.35%, it is a green and environmental friendly adsorption material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Boosted PMS activation is achieved by N, S co-doped durian peel-derived biochars (N,S-BCD-X) • N and S raise the ESP and redistribute the electron density in the doping sites of BCD. • Electron-donating capability is enhanced by N&S doping-induced decrease of work function. • 1O 2 is generated via different ways, enhanced by •OH and SO 4 •− due to elongated O-O bond of PMS. • S site in N,S-BCD-800 exhibits the strongest PMS adsorption with the most electron transferred. Biochar is an environmentally friendly material with various potential applications in water treatment. Herein, nitrogen and sulfur co-doped biochars (N,S-BCD-X) were fabricated from durian peel as an agricultural waste by coupling with thiourea via thermal treatment to activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS) for degradation of ofloxacin (OFX) in water. The OFX removal using PMS activated by N,S-BCD-800 was over 85 % after 120 min of reaction, which was 17.78 times higher than that by pure BCD. The OFX degradation was not inhibited over a wide pH range of 3 to 9. Through radical quenching tests, electron paramagnetic resonance, and DFT calculations, 1O 2 was revealed as the key reactive species in the N,S-BCD-800/PMS system because of PMS's elongated O-O bond-induced promoted generation of •OH and SO 4 •- with an insignificant contribution and the generation of 1O 2 via various reactions associated with •OH, SO 4 •-, and PMS. The boosted catalytic activity of N,S-BCD-800 mainly came from synergetic effect of N and S co-doping due to the enhanced electron-donating capability caused by decrease in the work function. Furthermore, the increase in electrostatic potential and the difference in electron density and atomic charge could also account for stronger adsorption and activation of PMS on N,S-BCD-800 to generate more 1O 2 besides the N,S-BCD-800/PMS complex as a minor species responsible for the degradation of OFX via electron transfer. Finally, the attainment of high efficiency of N,S-BCD/PMS for OFX degradation in various water matrices as well as after 5 cycles proved that N,S-BCD had high stability and applicability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Co-pyrolysis/combustion interactions and fates of heavy metals were quantified. • Temperature and atmosphere affect the leaching toxicity of heavy metals in co-combustion. • Co-pyrolysis reduced the risk levels of all heavy metals in biochars. • Durian shell improved the fixation of heavy metals in textile dyeing sludge. • K element raised the temperature of Ni (s) turning to NiO (slaga 1) in durian shell. The co-thermal conversions of textile dyeing sludge ((TDS) with biomass may be turned into a feasible and green technology to valorize energy and products, but the transformation behavior of heavy metals remains unclear. This study aimed to quantify the migrations and distributions of HMs in biochars and bottom slags and their environmental risks in response to the co-pyrolysis and co-combustion of durian shell (DS) and TDS, atmosphere type, blend ratio, and temperature. The co-combustion interaction of DS and TDS raised the residual HM contents of the bottom slag. Co-pyrolysis reduces the environmental risks of HMs of the TDS, and the effect of CO 2 atmosphere is better. In 80N 2 20O 2 , Cr, Zn, and Cu in the TDS bottom slag had the highest leaching toxicity concentrations at 900 °C. At 800 °C, the leaching toxicity concentrations of HMs were Cr > Cu > Zn > Mn in TDS. The O 2 concentration and atmosphere type did not significantly affect the HM morphology and transformation. K increased the temperature of converting solid-phase Ni to slag-phase NiO in DS sample and affected the transformation temperature and strength of Ni, Zn, and Pb in other sample at the high temperature. The combined results of all the three optimizations of HM contents, forms, and risks pointed to add 50 % DS in the N 2 atmosphere and add 50 % DS in 50N 2 50O 2 and 80CO 2 20O 2 atmospheres as the optimal co-pyrolysis/combustion settings, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the conversion of durian peel to biochar and pyrolysis liquid via slow pyrolysis. The central composite design was utilized to optimize the conditions of three independent variables, namely pyrolysis temperature, cooling temperature, and holding time. Analysis of variance revealed that only pyrolysis temperature had a significant effect on biochar and pyrolysis liquid yields. The biochar and pyrolysis liquid yields fit by a second-order polynomial model agreed well with experimental results. As the pyrolysis temperature increased, the solid product yield decreased, while the pyrolysis liquid yield increased. The highest biochar and pyrolysis liquid yields were 56.11% and 38.53% that derive at 300 and 600 °C of pyrolysis temperature, respectively. The validation of both prediction models showed over 96% agreement. Biochar of high heating value (26.55 MJ/kg) was obtained at 600 °C pyrolysis temperature and 30 min holding time. According to the Van Krevelen plot, the molar ratios of the H/C and O/C of the biochar obtained at 600 °C of pyrolysis temperatures were similar to coal material. The high-quality biochar was of carbon storage class 4 according to the IBI classification; and the characteristics of pyrolysis liquid met community product standards of Thailand. An economic analysis was performed to assess the feasibility of converting 60 tons/year of durian peel into biochar and pyrolysis liquid. An internal project rate of return (IRR) of 25.91% with a payback period of 1.58 years was estimated. The findings of this study indicate the economic viability of immediately deploying large-scale pyrolysis utilizing a waste stream from agriculture. [Display omitted] • Pyrolysis temperature mainly determined biochar and pyrolysis liquid yields. • Maximum biochar (56%) and pyrolysis liquid yields (38%) were determined. • The biochar is rated as a high-class 4 of carbon storage by the IBI. • The durian peel pyrolysis liquid met community product standards of Thailand. • In an economic study IRR is 25.91% with a payback period of 1.58 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Durian peel is a type of biomass derived from agricultural residues, which are found in abundant in Thailand. This study aims to investigate the thermal and chemical properties of three indigenous durian peels, namely Monthong (MDP), Puangmanee (PDP), and Bacho (BDP), as well as the characteristics of biochar and pyrolysis liquid derived from slow pyrolysis of the durian peel. MDP had the greatest volatile matter and fixed carbon content, with 73.97 and 18.43 wt%, respectively. MDP was applied for further research in order to produce biochar and pyrolysis liquid at pyrolysis temperatures of 400 and 600 °C. The maximum biochar yield was 36.01% at 400 °C, while the maximum pyrolysis liquid yield was 37.25% at 600 °C. The largest high heating value of biochar (24.48 MJ kg−1) was obtained at 600 °C more than the high heating value of feedstock (14.32 MJ kg−1). Biochar obtained at 400 °C can be categorized as fertilizer class 4, while biochar obtained at 600 °C can be classified as carbon storage class 2 using the IBI biochar classification tool. The quality of the pyrolysis liquid was determined to be of 3.14 pH and 1.052 g mL−1 specific gravity at a pyrolysis temperature of 600 °C, which meets Thailand standards. As a result, both 400 °C and 600 °C pyrolysis liquids produced significant chemicals that are employed in a variety of industries. Consequently, this research is strongly recommended to be expanded to produce high-quality durian peel biochar and pyrolysis liquid. [Display omitted] • Comprehensive physical, chemical, thermal properties of durian peels were explored. • Durian peel biochar can be categorized by the IBI as carbon storage class 2. • The biochar can be classified by the IBI as a high fertilizer class 4. • Pyrolysis liquid derived from the durian peel meet Thailand standards. • 81 main compounds with essential chemicals were detected in the pyrolysis liquids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Durian shell (DS) was pyrolyzed in a drop-type fixed-bed reactor to study the physicochemical properties of the products. The experiment was carried out with different particle sizes (up to 5 mm) and reaction temperatures (250–650 °C). The highest bio-oil yield was obtained at 650 °C (57.45 wt%) with DS size of 1–2 mm. The elemental composition and higher heating value of the feedstock, bio-oil (650 °C), and bio-char (650 °C) were determined and compared. The compositions of product gases were determined via gas chromatography with thermal conductivity detector. The chemical composition of bio-oil was analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The bio-oil produced at lower temperature yields more alcohols, whereas the bio-oil produced at higher temperature contains more aromatics and carbonyls. Bio-oil has potential to be used as liquid fuel or fine chemical precursor after further upgrading. The results further showed the potential of bio-char as a solid fuel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]