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A quantitative gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS) method was developed for delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-THC), delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-8-THC), tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), and cannabidiol (CBD) in matrices including plant material, liquids and oils, waxes, edibles, and bath and body products. Samples were prepared by homogenization, extraction of the cannabinoids into solvent, liquid/liquid extraction, and derivatization. The GC/MS method was validated from 0.15% to 5.00% (weight basis) to encompass the 0.3% legal distinction between hemp and marijuana. Validation was performed assessing imprecision/bias, calibration model, recovery, interferences, limit of detection, matrix matching, carryover, accuracy, and an assessment of CBD conversion to delta-9-THC. The calibration curves were quadratic weighted 1/x with r 2  > 0.990. The method had a detection limit of 0.075% in plant material for each analyte. Analyte recovery was greater than 70% in plant material. Carryover was not observed up to concentrations equivalent to 100% analyte, and no forensically significant conversion of CBD to delta-9-THC was observed. One cannabinoid isomer, 9(R)-delta-7-tetrahydrocannabinol (9(R)-delta-7-THC), was determined to interfere with the quantitation of delta-9-THC, but could be differentiated based on mass spectrum. The method was determined to be suitable for quantitation of delta-9-THC, delta-8-THC, delta-9-THCA, and CBD and was able to differentiate hemp samples from marijuana samples., (© 2024 The Author(s). Journal of Forensic Sciences published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Academy of Forensic Sciences.)

Cultivation of industrial low-Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ 9 -THC) hemp has created an oversupply of cannabidiol (CBD)-rich products. The fact that phytocannabinoids, including CBD, can be used as precursors to synthetically produce a range of THC variants-potentially located in a legal loophole-has led to a diversification of cannabis recreational drug markets. 'Hemp-compliant', 'hemp-derived' and 'semisynthetic' cannabinoid products are emerging and being advertised as (legal) alternatives for Δ 9 -THC. This study included a large panel (n = 30) of THC isomers, homologs, and analogs that might be derived via semisynthetic procedures. As a proxy for the abuse potential of these compounds, we assessed their potential to activate the CB 1 cannabinoid receptor with a β-arrestin2 recruitment bioassay (picomolar-micromolar concentrations). Multiple THC homologs (tetrahydrocannabihexol, THCH; tetrahydrocannabiphorol, THCP; tetrahydrocannabinol-C8, THC-C8) and THC analogs (hexahydrocannabinol, HHC; hexahydrocannabiphorol, HHCP) were identified that showed higher potential for CB 1 activation than Δ 9 -THC, based on either higher efficacy (E max ) or higher potency (EC 50 ). Structure-activity relationships were assessed for Δ 9 -THC and Δ 8 -THC homologs encompassing elongated alkyl chains. Additionally, stereoisomer-specific differences in CB 1 activity were established for various THC isomers (Δ 7 -THC, Δ 10 -THC) and analogs (HHC, HHCP). Evaluation of the relative abundance of 9(S)-HHC and 9(R)-HHC epimers in seized drug material revealed varying epimeric compositions between batches. Increased abundance of the less active 9(S)-HHC epimer empirically resulted in decreased potency, but sustained efficacy for the resulting diastereomeric mixture. In conclusion, monitoring of semisynthetic cannabinoids is encouraged as the dosing and the relative composition of stereoisomers can impact the harm potential of these drugs, relative to Δ 9 -THC products., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

The 2018 Farm Bill defines marijuana as Cannabis sativa L. or any derivative thereof that contains greater than 0.3% Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ 9 -THC) on a dry weight basis. The main cannabinoids present in Cannabis sativa L., Δ 9 -THC and cannabidiol (CBD), are structural isomers that cannot be differentiated using direct mass spectrometry with soft ionization techniques alone. Due to the classification of marijuana as a Schedule I controlled substance, the differentiation of Δ 9 -THC and CBD is crucial within the seized drug community. This study explores the use of Ag-ligand ion complexation and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) for the differentiation of Δ 9 -THC and CBD using six different Ag complexes. Differences between the binding affinities of Δ 9 -THC and CBD for [Ag(PPh 3 )(OTf)] 2 lead to the formation of unique product ions at m / z 421/423, m / z 353/355, and m / z 231 for CBD, enabling the differentiation of CBD from Δ 9 -THC. When applied to the analysis of known Δ 9 -THC:CBD mixture ratios, the developed [Ag(PPh 3 )(OTf)] 2 ion complexation method was able to differentiate Δ 9 -THC-rich and CBD-rich samples based on the average abundance of the product ions at m / z 421/423. The developed approach was then applied to methanolic extracts of 20 authentic cannabis samples with known Δ 9 -THC and CBD compositions, resulting in a 95% correct classification rate. Even though the developed Ag-ligand ion complexation method was only demonstrated for the qualitative differentiation of Δ 9 -THC-rich and CBD-rich cannabis, this study establishes a foundation for the use of Ag-ligand ion complexation that is essential for future quantitative approaches.

Δ 9 -THC, the psychotropic cannabinoid in Cannabis sativa L., for many years has been the focus of all the pharmacological attention as the main promising principle of the plant. Recently, however, cannabidiol (CBD) has brought a sudden change in the scenario, exponentially increasing the interest in pharmacology as the main non-psychotropic cannabinoid with potential therapeutic, cosmetical and clinical applications. Although the reactivity of CBD and Δ 9 -THC has been considered, little attention has been paid to the possible photodegradation of these cannabinoids in the vegetal matrix and the data available in the literature are, in some cases, contradictory. The aim of the present work is to provide a characterization of the photochemical behaviour of CBD and Δ 9 -THC in three cannabis chemotypes, namely I (Δ 9 -THC 2.50% w/w ), II (CBD:Δ 9 -THC 5.82% w/w :3.19% w/w ) and III (CBD 3.02% w/w )., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Sativex is a cannabis-based medicine that comes in the form of an oromucosal spray. It contains equal amounts of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol, two compounds derived from cannabis plants. Sativex has been shown to have positive effects on symptoms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), multiple sclerosis (MS), and sleep disorders. It also has analgesic, antiinflammatory, antitumoral, and neuroprotective properties, which make it a potential treatment option for other neurological disorders. The article reviews the results of recent preclinical and clinical studies that support the therapeutic potential of Sativex and the molecular mechanisms behind its neuroprotective benefits in various neurological disorders. The article also discusses the possible advantages and disadvantages of using Sativex as a neurotherapeutic agent, such as its safety, efficacy, availability, and legal status., (Copyright© Bentham Science Publishers; For any queries, please email at epub@benthamscience.net.)

On the analysis of cannabidiol (CBD) e-liquid by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, we experienced suspected thermal decomposition of CBD to Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ 9 -THC). To clarify the factors involved in the decomposition, we evaluated the effects of the injection methods (splitless or split), injector temperatures (250, 225, 200, and 180 °C), and liner conditions (new liner or used liner) on the CBD decomposition. We also examined whether addition of methylamine to the dissolving solvent (methanol) inhibited the decomposition. Decomposition was not observed under split mode. However, under splitless mode, we observed that decomposition was promoted with the use of used liner and by high injector temperatures, and addition of methylamine to the dissolving solvent also suppressed the decomposition. Split injection was effective for preventing the decomposition; however, splitless injection enables detection of lower-concentrated Δ 9 -THC in CBD products than split injection. To balance sensitivity of Δ 9 -THC and inhibition of the thermal decomposition under splitless mode, we recommend using new liner for the analysis, addition of methylamine to the dissolving solvent, and maintenance of the injector temperature at 200 °C., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Cannabis access laws allow for the use of cannabis in private and the trade, purchase and use of hemp-related products as a complementary medicine and for other benefits. Cannabidiol (CBD) has the treatment potential for several conditions but, with the lack of resources in South Africa to maintain the legislation, products contaminated with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) are sold by some suppliers who do not comply with the legislative provisions in terms of the threshold concentrations for Δ9-THC. This dilemma complicates a medical review officer's decision regarding intentional use of Δ9-THC or otherwise, since a CBD user may have purchased the product legally and in good faith. Hemp- and CBD-containing products were analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and compliance was assessed for CBD and Δ9-THC purity against the legislative thresholds. A strategy based on metabolite ratios is suggested to distinguish between intentional or irresponsible cannabis use and legitimate CBD use.

As the frequency of cannabis-based therapy increases, the ability to distinguish intake of cannabis-based medicines from recreational cannabis use becomes desirable. Minor cannabinoids have been suggested to indicate recreational cannabis use in biological matrices but are unreliable when presumably also present in directly plantderived medicines. Thus, for therapeutics such as medical cannabis, Sativex® and Dronabinol, a more thorough investigation of cannabinoid profiles is required to identify possible distinguishing markers. In this study, 16 phytocannabinoids were quantified in samples of seized and medical cannabis, Sativex® and Dronabinol from two different manufacturers, using a validated LC-MS/MS method. Analytes included delta-9- tetrahydrocannabinol, tetrahydocannabinolic acid A, cannabidiol, cannabidiolic acid, cannabigerol, cannabigerolic acid, cannabinol, cannabinolic acid, cannabichromene, cannabichromenic acid, cannabicyclol, cannabicyclolic acid, tetrahydrocannabivarin, tetrahydrocannabivarinic acid, cannabidivarin and cannabidivarinic acid. Resultant cannabinoid profiles were compared, and markers were suggested. Characteristics of Sativex® included a specific cannabidiol/tetrahydrocannabinol ratio and presence of cannabichromene, while acidic cannabinoids, cannabigerol and cannabinol occurred in only low amounts. As expected, the predominant ingredient in Dronabinol was tetrahydrocannabinol, but minor cannabinoids were quantified as well. Medical marihuana and seized cannabis were compared separately in a principal component analysis. Several medical marihuana varieties were found to significantly differ from seized cannabis, mostly regarding contents of tetrahydocannabinolic acid A and tetrahydrocannabivarinic acid and cannabidiolic and cannabidivarinic acid respectively., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The use of cannabidiol (CBD) in electronic cigarettes is widespread. Previously, it was reported that CBD is partly transformed to THC in case smoking as a cigarette, however, the pyrolysis of this compound has not been assessed extensively. The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of temperature on the composition of pyrolysis products of CBD. The experiments were performed in the typical operating temperature range of e-cigarettes (250-400 °C) and at 500 °C under both inert and oxidative conditions, and the pyrolysis products were identified and quantified by GC-MS. Depending on the temperature and atmosphere, 25-52% of CBD was transformed into other chemical substances: Δ 9 -THC, Δ 8 -THC, cannabinol and cannabichromene were the predominant pyrolysates in both conditions, all formed by cyclization reaction. THC was the main pyrolysis product at all temperatures under both oxidative and inert conditions. Our results point out that CBD in e-cigarettes can be considered as a precursor of THC, thus it bears all the dangers related to this psychoactive compound. Our findings are fundamental contributions to the safety profile of CBD-based e-cigarettes.

Stem cell therapy promotes tissue regeneration and wound healing. Efforts have been made to prime stem cells to enhance their regenerative abilities. Certain marijuana components, namely the non-psychoactive cannabidiol (CBD) and psychoactive tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), are defined as immunomodulators. 9 We test whether two sources of stem cells, primed with CBD or THC, would demonstrate improved regenerative abilities. Human adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) and bone marrow-derived stem cells (BMDSCs), not obtained from the same individual, were treated with low (300 nM) or high (3 μM) concentration CBD. Porcine ASCs and BMDSCs were isolated from a single pig, and treated with either low or high concentrations of CBD or THC. Transwell migration and MTT proliferation assays were performed on the human ASCs and BMDSCs. Also, transwell migration assay was performed on the porcine ASCs and BMDSCs. Finally, a wound healing scratch assay in porcine primary fibroblasts (PFs) was performed, co-cultured with the cannabinoid-treated ASCs. CBD priming at low concentration induces migration by 180% (P < .01) in porcine ASCs, and by only 93% (P < .02) in porcine BMDSCs. In porcine stem cells, THC priming at low concentration induces migration by 91.6% (P < .01) in ASCs but by only 44.3% (P < .03) in BMDSCs. Compared to PFs co-cultured with untreated ASCs, PFs co-cultured with low CBD-primed ASCs had 75% faster wound closure at 18 hours (P < .01). CBD and THC priming of ASCs and BMDSCs, particularly at lower doses, enhances a number of regenerative parameters, suggesting that these major marijuana components may improve stem cell-based therapies. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY: Our study demonstrates that cannabinoids can enhance the regenerative capacity of two major sources of stem cells, adipose- and bone marrow-derived, from human and porcine donors. Stem cell isolation and expansion is invasive, costly and time consuming. Stem cells with improved regenerative properties may be effective in the treatment of acute or chronic wounds. This is the first study to compare the priming potential of two sources of stem cells from the same animal, with the same genetic and epigenetic profile, as well as the first to prime with THC., (© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Introduction: Cannabidiol (CBD), the nonintoxicating constituent of cannabis, is largely employed for pharmaceutical and cosmetic purposes. CBD can be extracted from the plant or chemically synthesized. Impurities of psychotropic cannabinoids Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ 9 -THC) and Δ 8 -THC have been found in extracted CBD, thus hypothesizing a possible contamination from the plant. Materials and Methods: In this study, synthetic and extracted CBD samples were analyzed by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry and the parameters that can be responsible of the conversion of CBD into THC were evaluated by an accelerated stability test. Results: In synthetic and extracted CBD no trace of THC species was detected. In contrast, CBD samples stored in the dark at room temperature on the benchtop for 3 months showed the presence of such impurities. Experiments carried out under inert atmosphere in the absence of humidity or carbon dioxide led to no trace of THC over time even at high temperature. Conclusions: The results suggested that the copresence of carbon dioxide and water from the air could be the key for creating the acidic environment responsible for the cyclization of CBD. These findings suggest that it might be appropriate to review the storage conditions indicated on the label of commercially available CBD., Competing Interests: No competing financial interests exist., (Copyright 2021, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., publishers.)

Many people with MS (pwMS) use unregulated cannabis or cannabis products to treat the symptoms associated with the disease. In line with this, Sativex, a synthetic combination of cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ 9 -THC) has been approved to treat symptoms of spasticity. In animals, CBD is effective in reducing the amounts of T-cell infiltrates in the spinal cord, suggesting CBD has anti-inflammatory properties. By doing this, CBD has shown to delay symptom onset in animal models of multiple sclerosis and slow disease progression. Importantly, combinations of CBD and Δ 9 -THC appear more effective in treating animal models of multiple sclerosis. While CBD reduces the amounts of cell infiltrates in the spinal cord, Δ 9 -THC reduces scores of spasticity. In human studies, the results are less encouraging and conflict with the findings in animals. Drugs which deliver a combination of Δ 9 -THC and CBD in a 1:1 ratio appear to be only moderately effective in reducing spasticity scores, but appear to be almost as effective as current front-line treatments and cause less severe side effects than other treatments, such as baclofen (a GABA-B receptor agonist) and tizanidine (an α2 adrenergic receptor agonist). The findings of the studies reviewed suggest that cannabinoids may help treat neuropathic pain in pwMS as an add-on therapy to already established pain treatments. It is important to note that treatment with cannabinoid compounds may cause significant cognitive dysfunction. Long term double-blind placebo studies are greatly needed to further our understanding of the role of cannabinoids in multiple sclerosis treatment.

Chronic neuropathic pain (NP) is a growing clinical problem for which effective treatments, aside from non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and opioids, are lacking. Cannabinoids are emerging as potentially promising agents to manage neuroimmune effects associated with nociception. In particular, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and their combination are being considered as therapeutic alternatives for treatment of NP. This study aimed to examine whether sex affects long-term outcomes on persistent mechanical hypersensitivity 7 weeks after ceasing cannabinoid administration. Clinically relevant low doses of THC, CBD, and a 1:1 combination of THC:CBD extracts, in medium chain triglyceride (MCT) oil, were orally gavaged for 14 consecutive days to age-matched groups of male and female sexually mature Sprague Dawley rats. Treatments commenced one day after surgically inducing a pro-nociceptive state using a peripheral sciatic nerve cuff. The analgesic efficacy of each phytocannabinoid was assessed relative to MCT oil using hind paw mechanical behavioural testing once a week for 9 weeks. In vivo intracellular electrophysiology was recorded at endpoint to characterize soma threshold changes in primary afferent sensory neurons within dorsal root ganglia (DRG) innervated by the affected sciatic nerve. The thymus, spleen, and DRG were collected post-sacrifice and analyzed for long-term effects on markers associated with T lymphocytes at the RNA level using qPCR. Administration of cannabinoids, particularly the 1:1 combination of THC, elicited a sustained mechanical anti-hypersensitive effect in males with persistent peripheral NP, which corresponded to beneficial changes in myelinated Aβ mechanoreceptive fibers. Specific immune cell markers associated with T cell differentiation and pro-inflammatory cytokines, previously implicated in repair processes, were differentially up-regulated by cannabinoids in males treated with cannabinoids, but not in females, warranting further investigation into sexual dimorphisms that may underlie treatment outcomes., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Cannabidiol (CBD) rich hemp and hemp products low in Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (less than 1%) are legally available in Switzerland. Besides herbs for smoking and oils, liquids (e-liquids) for smoking in electronic cigarettes (e-cigs) have recently appeared on the market. These e-liquids are available with different CBD concentrations and can be flavoured. The aim of the current study was to investigate 20 e-liquids legally available in Switzerland for their contents using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) as a preliminary step followed by gas-chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry to identify potential cannabinoids, natural plant compounds and flavours. Quantification of CBD, cannabidiol carboxylic acid (CBD-acid), cannabinol (CBN), Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol carboxylic acid A (THC-acid) was performed by a validated method with ultra-high-pressure-liquid chromatography coupled to a diode array detector (UHPLC-DAD). FTIR analysis could confirm that for all investigated samples the e-liquid matrix consisted of 1,2-propanediol and glycerol. The qualitative GC-MS could identify ten phytocannabinoids including the quantified analytes, six natural plant compounds and five flavours. All analysed samples had a total THC content below 0.1059% (by weight), hence meeting the legal requirements of both Switzerland (<1%) and the European Union (<0.2%). The total CBD content ranged from 0.182 to 3.346% and differed in ten out of 20 samples from the CBD content presented by the manufacturer by more than 10% relative CBD. Furthermore, two of the analysed samples contained only 0.348% and 0.182% total CBD despite being labelled as "CBD rich". Seven of the 20 samples contained the correct CBD content (in the range of the labelled CBD content ± 10%). In conclusion, a deviation in the determined total CBD content from the labelled CBD content could be observed for half of the analysed samples, meaning that consumers cannot rely on the manufacturers' information. It is remarkable, that currently no official regulations for providing correct information of CBD content or any external product control is available in Switzerland and in most other countries., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

There is an active and growing interest in cannabis female inflorescence ( Cannabis sativa ) for medical purposes. Therefore, a definition of its quality attributes can help mitigate public health risks associated with contaminated, substandard, or adulterated products and support sound and reproducible basic and clinical research. As cannabis is a heterogeneous matrix that can contain a complex secondary metabolome with an uneven distribution of constituents, ensuring its quality requires appropriate sampling procedures and a suite of tests, analytical procedures, and acceptance criteria to define the identity, content of constituents (e.g., cannabinoids), and limits on contaminants. As an independent science-based public health organization, United States Pharmacopeia (USP) has formed a Cannabis Expert Panel, which has evaluated specifications necessary to define key cannabis quality attributes. The consensus within the expert panel was that these specifications should differentiate between cannabis chemotypes. Based on the secondary metabolite profiles, the expert panel has suggested adoption of three broad categories of cannabis. These three main chemotypes have been identified as useful for labeling based on the following cannabinoid constituents: (1) tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-dominant chemotype; (2) intermediate chemotype with both THC and cannabidiol (CBD); and (3) CBD-dominant chemotype. Cannabis plants in each of these chemotypes may be further subcategorized based on the content of other cannabinoids and/or mono- and sesquiterpene profiles. Morphological and chromatographic tests are presented for the identification and quantitative determination of critical constituents. Limits for contaminants including pesticide residues, microbial levels, mycotoxins, and elemental contaminants are presented based on toxicological considerations and aligned with the existing USP procedures for general tests and assays. The principles outlined in this review should be able to be used as the basis of public quality specifications for cannabis inflorescence, which are needed for public health protection and to facilitate scientific research on cannabis safety and therapeutic potential.

This study focuses on the chemical route sourcing of illicitly produced Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) via the acid-catalyzed cannabidiol isomerization reaction. Each of the acid-catalyzed reactions used acids that are readily available for the general population such as battery acid, muriatic acid, and vinegar. After the acid-catalyzed isomerization was complete, an analysis using Liquid Chromatography-coupled-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS)-coupled-ion mobility to confirm all synthetic impurities in the sample was conducted. The conducted chemical route sourcing allows law enforcement to be able to determine how CBD was converted to psychoactive cannabinoids. Specifically, 10-methoxy-THC, 11-hydroxy-THC, 11,5″-dihydroxy-Δ9-THC, and 5″-hydroxy-CBD were able to be used as indicators in the determination of the chemical route sourcing. Additionally, the ion mobility allowed for a rapid secondary separation of the psychoactive cannabinoids without the need for the long LC/MS analysis time., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

The butyl homologues of Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol, Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabutol (Δ 9 -THCB), and cannabidiol, cannabidibutol (CBDB), were isolated from a medicinal Cannabis sativa variety (FM2) inflorescence. Appropriate spectroscopic and spectrometric characterization, including NMR, UV, IR, ECD, and HRMS, was carried out on both cannabinoids. The chemical structures and absolute configurations of the isolated cannabinoids were confirmed by comparison with the spectroscopic data of the respective compounds obtained by stereoselective synthesis. The butyl homologue of Δ 9 -THC, Δ 9 -THCB, showed an affinity for the human CB1 ( K i = 15 nM) and CB2 receptors ( K i = 51 nM) comparable to that of (-)- trans -Δ 9 -THC. Docking studies suggested the key bonds responsible for THC-like binding affinity for the CB1 receptor. The formalin test in vivo was performed on Δ 9 -THCB in order to reveal possible analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties. The tetrad test in mice showed a partial agonistic activity of Δ 9 -THCB toward the CB1 receptor.

Quality control is imperative for Cannabis since the primary cannabinoids, Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), elicit very different pharmacological effects. THC/CBD ratios are currently determined by techniques not readily accessible by consumers or dispensaries and which are impractical for use in the field by law-enforcement agencies. CuPc- and F 16 -CuPc-based organic thin-film transistors have been combined with a cannabinoid-sensitive chromophore for the detection and differentiation of THC and CBD. The combined use of these well-characterized and inexpensive p- and n-type materials afforded the determination of the CBD/THC ratio from rapid plant extracts, with results indistinguishable from high-pressure liquid chromatography. Analysis of the prepyrolyzed sample accurately predicted postpyrolysis THC/CBD, which ultimately influences the psychotropic and medicinal effects of the specific plant. The devices were also capable of vapor-phase sensing, producing a unique electrical output for THC and CBD relative to other potentially interfering vaporized organic products. The analysis of complex medicinal plant extracts and vapors, normally reserved for advanced analytical infrastructure, can be achieved with ease, at low cost, and on the spot, using organic thin-film transistors.

Herein, we report the antioxidant activity of cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in pure and mixed solutions at different ratios, as well as of six different Cannabis sativa extracts containing various proportions of CBD and THC by using spectrophotometric (reducing power assay, 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), hypochlorous acid (HOCl) scavenging assays) and electrochemical methods (cyclic voltammetry and differential pulse voltammetry). The isolated cannabinoids, the different stoichiometric ratios of CBD and THC, and the natural extracts proved to have remarkable antioxidant properties in all the methods employed in this work. The antioxidant activity of CBD and THC was compared against that of the well-defined antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (AA), resveratrol (Resv) and (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG). Clear evidence of the synergistic and antagonistic effects between CBD and THC regarding to their antioxidant activities was observed. Moreover, a good correlation was obtained between the optical and electrochemical methods, which proved that the reported experimental procedures can easily be adapted to determine the antioxidant activity of extracts from various Cannabis sativa species and related compounds.

Recent evidence has raised in discussion the possibility that cannabidiol can act as a negative allosteric modulator of the cannabinoid type 1 receptor. Here we have used computational methods to study the modulation exerted by cannabidiol on the effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the cannabinoid receptor type 1 and the possibility of direct receptor blockade. We propose a putative allosteric binding site that is located in the N-terminal region of receptor, partially overlapping the orthosteric binding site. Molecular dynamics simulations reveled a coordinated movement involving the outward rotation of helixes 1 and 2 and subsequent expansion of the orthosteric binding site upon cannabidiol binding. Finally, changes in the cytoplasmic region and high helix 8 mobility were related to impaired receptor internalization. Together, these results offer a possible explanation to how cannabidiol can directly modulate effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on the cannabinoid receptor type 1., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

As more states rush to legalize the use of cannabis products, both medically and recreationally, there are more medical harms being seen in emergency departments (ED). The tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentration today is much stronger than the concentration from the 90s. In the 1990s most typical "joints" contained 1-3 mg of THC. Today, plants are being raised and modified to produce a higher concentration of THC. In turn, the amount of cannabidiol (CBD) is decreasing. Previously, people would smoke 1-3 mg of THC. The typical joint in Colorado contains 18 mg of THC or more. Currently, in the ED, we see patients who self-report smoking 2,000 mg or more of THC in a day. In 2015, 2.6 million individuals started cannabis use, 45% were 12-17 years of age.3 This brief report includes some of the more common illnesses that have been seen over the last four years of legalization in Colorado, and is by no means inclusive of all the potential problems that can occur. Among the many untoward effects being seen, illnesses that will be discussed are: cannabinoid associated hyperemesis, acute psychosis, cannabinoid catatonia syndrome, acute myo-pericarditis and ingestions.

Cannabidiol (CBD) is the main nonpsychoactive component of the cannabis plant. It has been associated with antiseizure, antioxidant, neuroprotective, anxiolytic, anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, and antipsychotic effects. PTL101 is an oral gelatin matrix pellets technology-based formulation containing highly purified CBD embedded in seamless gelatin matrix beadlets. Study objectives were to evaluate the safety and tolerability of PTL101 containing 10 and 100 mg CBD, following single administrations to healthy volunteers and to compare the pharmacokinetic profiles and relative bioavailability of CBD with Sativex oromucosal spray (the reference product) in a randomized, crossover study design. Administration of PTL101 containing 10 CBD, led to a 1.7-fold higher C max and 1.3-fold higher AUC compared with the oromucosal spray. T max following both modes of delivery was 3-3.5 hours postdosing. CBD exhibited about a 1-hour lag in absorption when delivered via PTL101. A 10-fold increase in the dose resulted in an ∼15-fold increase in C max and AUC. Bioavailability of CBD in the 10-mg PTL101 dose was 134% relative to the reference spray. PTL101 is a pharmaceutical-grade, user-friendly oral formulation that demonstrated safe and efficient delivery of CBD and therefore could be an attractive candidate for therapeutic indications., (© 2017, The American College of Clinical Pharmacology.)

The stability of cannabinoids is complex and crucial for the assessment of impaired driving caused by cannabis. Therefore, the effect of antioxidants on the long-term stability of Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabinol (CBN), cannabidiol (CBD), 11-hydroxy-Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-OH), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) in whole blood samples preserved with fluoride citrate (FC) and fluoride oxalate (FX) mixtures was investigated at different temperatures. The measured concentrations of the cannabinoids in authentic whole blood preserved solely with FC or FX mixtures decreased significantly during prolonged storage at -20°C. On average, less than 5% of the initial concentrations of THC and CBD were recovered after 19 weeks of storage interrupted by 5 thawing/freezing cycles. The rate of decrease was greatest in FC-preserved blood. The repeated thawing/freezing of the samples accelerated the instability progression. At 5°C approximately 60% of the initial concentrations of THC and CBD were recovered after 19 weeks of storage. No significant decrease was observed in samples stored at -80°C during the test period of 5 months. The instability at -20°C was to a great extend avoided by adding 30 mM ascorbic acid (ASC) to the samples before storage. Samples preserved with a combination of the FX mixture and ASC showed no significant decrease in the recovered concentrations during a 5-month storage period interrupted by 6 thawing/freezing cycles. Samples preserved with a combination of the FC mixture and ASC showed almost similar improvements in cannabinoid stability. Other reducing agents such as sodium metabisulfite and glutathione also improved the stability in FX-preserved blood stored at -20°C., (Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

The lipophilic phytocannabinoids cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) show therapeutic efficacy in various medical conditions. Both molecules are poorly water soluble and subjected to extensive first pass metabolism in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to a limited oral bioavailability of approximately 9%. We have developed an advanced lipid based Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System termed Advanced Pro-NanoLiposphere (PNL) pre-concentrate. The PNL is composed of lipid and emulsifying excipients of GRAS status and are known to increase solubility and reduce Phase I metabolism of lipophilic active compounds. Advanced PNLs are PNLs with an incorporated natural absorption enhancers. These molecules are natural alkaloids and phenolic compounds which were reported to inhibit certain phase I and phase II metabolism processes. Here we use piperine, curcumin and resveratrol to formulate the Advanced-PNL formulations. Consequently, we have explored the utility of these Advanced-PNLs on CBD and THC oral bioavailability. Oral administration of CBD-piperine-PNL resulted in 6-fold increase in AUC compared to CBD solution, proving to be the most effective of the screened formulations. The same trend was found in pharmacokinetic experiments of THC-piperine-PNL which resulted in a 9.3-fold increase in AUC as compared to THC solution. Our Piperine-PNL can be used as a platform for synchronized delivery of piperine and CBD or THC to the enterocyte site. This co-localization provides an increase in CBD and THC bioavailability by its effect at the pre-enterocyte and the enterocyte levels of the absorption process. The extra augmentation in the absorption of CBD and THC by incorporating piperine into PNL is attributed to the inhibition of Phase I and phase II metabolism by piperine in addition to the Phase I metabolism and P-gp inhibition by PNL. These novel results pave the way to utilize piperine-PNL delivery system for other poorly soluble, highly metabolized compounds that currently cannot be administered orally., (Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Rationale: Self-report studies indicate that cannabis could increase sexual desire in some users. We hypothesized that intoxication increases activation of brain areas responsive to visual erotica, which could be useful in the treatment of hypoactive sexual desire disorder, a condition marked by a lack of sexual desire., Objectives: The aim of this study is to assess the aphrodisiacal properties of cannabis., Methods: We conducted an open-randomized study with 21 heterosexual casual cannabis users. A 3T MRI was used to measure brain activation in response to erotic pictures. Blood samples were collected to determine the serum levels of cannabinoids, cortisol and prolactin. Participants were grouped according to whether they had ever experienced any aphrodisiacal effects during intoxication (Group A) or not (Group non-A)., Results: Intoxication was found to significantly increase activation in the right nucleus accumbens in the Group A while significantly decreasing activation in the Group non-A. There was also a significant interaction between the group and intoxication, with elevated prolactin in the Group non-A during intoxication. No intoxication-related differences in subjective picture evaluations were found., Conclusion: Cannabis intoxication increases activation of the right nucleus accumbens to erotic stimuli. This effect is limited to users whose prolactin is not elevated in response to intoxication. This effect may be useful in the treatment of low sexual desire.

Δ(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) occur naturally in marijuana (Cannabis) and may be formulated, individually or in combination in pharmaceuticals such as Marinol or Sativex. Although it is known that these hydrophobic compounds can be transported in blood by albumin or lipoproteins, the intracellular carrier has not been identified. Recent reports suggest that CBD and THC elevate the levels of the endocannabinoid anandamide (AEA) when administered to humans, suggesting that phytocannabinoids target cellular proteins involved in endocannabinoid clearance. Fatty acid-binding proteins (FABPs) are intracellular proteins that mediate AEA transport to its catabolic enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). By computational analysis and ligand displacement assays, we show that at least three human FABPs bind THC and CBD and demonstrate that THC and CBD inhibit the cellular uptake and catabolism of AEA by targeting FABPs. Furthermore, we show that in contrast to rodent FAAH, CBD does not inhibit the enzymatic actions of human FAAH, and thus FAAH inhibition cannot account for the observed increase in circulating AEA in humans following CBD consumption. Using computational molecular docking and site-directed mutagenesis we identify key residues within the active site of FAAH that confer the species-specific sensitivity to inhibition by CBD. Competition for FABPs may in part or wholly explain the increased circulating levels of endocannabinoids reported after consumption of cannabinoids. These data shed light on the mechanism of action of CBD in modulating the endocannabinoid tone in vivo and may explain, in part, its reported efficacy toward epilepsy and other neurological disorders., (© 2015 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.)

An antioxidant mechanism of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) were compared with a simplified model of α-tocopherol, butylhydroxytoluene and hydroxytoluene in order to understand the antioxidant nature of THC and CBD molecules using DFT. The following electronic properties were evaluated: frontier orbitals nature, ionization potential, O-H bond dissociation energy (BDEOH), stabilization energy, and spin density distribution. An important factor that shows an influence in the antioxidant property of THC is the electron abstraction at the phenol position. Our data indicate that the decrease of the HOMO values and the highest ionization potential values are related to phenol, ether, and alkyl moieties. On the other hand, BDEOH in molecules with the cyclohexenyl group at ortho position of phenol are formed from lower energies than the molecules with an ether group at the meta position. In the light of our results, the properties calculated here predict that THC has a sightly higher antioxidant potential than CBD.

Rationale: Liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) is frequently used for analysis of cannabinoids in drug abuse control. Despite differences in structure, the isomers Δ(9) -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) provide identical fragment spectra after positive electrospray ionization (ESI). For elucidation of the reason, hydrogen/deuterium (H/D) exchange experiments were performed., Methods: Solutions of THC and CBD in D(2) O/acetonitrile (50:50, v/v) were flow-injected into acetonitrile as the mobile phase and measured by hybrid quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (FI-QTOF-MS) in targeted MS/MS mode. The MS and collision-induced dissociation (CID) spectra at 10, 20 and 40 eV were interpreted with respect to number and position of exchanged hydrogen atoms. For comparison the same measurements were preformed in H(2) O, after addition of 0.5% formic acid and with negative ESI., Results: Depending on injected volume and position in the response curve, up to 7 or 8 hydrogen atoms were exchanged by deuterium in THC or CBD. Positive ESI CID spectra were available for precursors with up to 4 exchanged D-atoms and showed that besides the OH groups also an H/D exchange at carbon atoms of the non-aromatic part of the molecules occurred for both THC and CBD. After negative ESI, no H/D exchange in addition to the OH groups and different CID spectra of both substances was found., Conclusions: Injection of the investigated substances in D(2) O and measurement by FI-QTOF-MS proved to be an efficient way to perform H/D exchange experiments. The results were interpreted as an acid-catalyzed in-source equilibration between THC and CBD leading to the same precursor ions and to an H/D exchange in the methyl groups under the increased acidic conditions in the positive ESI droplets. Therefore, in positive LC/ESI-MS/MS, peak identification by CID spectra or by abundance ratio of multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) transitions is not sufficient for unambiguous discrimination between THC and CBD and must be supported by retention time or other experimental evidence., (Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Aims: In this study, we examined the inhibitory effects of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabinol (CBN), the three major cannabinoids, on the activity of human cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A enzymes. Furthermore, we investigated the kinetics and structural requirement for the inhibitory effect of CBD on the CYP3A activity., Main Methods: Diltiazem N-demethylase activity of recombinant CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP3A7, and human liver microsomes (HLMs) in the presence of cannabinoids was determined., Key Findings: Among the three major cannabinoids, CBD most potently inhibited CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 (IC(50)=11.7 and 1.65 μM, respectively). The IC(50) values of Δ(9)-THC and CBN for CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 were higher than 35 μM. For CYP3A7, Δ(9)-THC, CBD, and CBN inhibited the activity to a similar extent (IC(50)=23-31 μM). CBD competitively inhibited the activity of CYP3A4, CYP3A5, and HLMs (K(i)=1.00, 0.195, and 6.14 μM, respectively). On the other hand, CBD inhibited the CYP3A7 activity in a mixed manner (K(i)=12.3 μM). Olivetol partially inhibited all the CYP3A isoforms tested, whereas d-limonene showed lack of inhibition. The lesser inhibitory effects of monomethyl and dimethyl ethers of CBD indicated that the ability of CYP3A inhibition by the cannabinoid attenuated with the number of methylation on the phenolic hydroxyl groups in the resorcinol moiety., Significance: This study indicated that CBD most potently inhibited catalytic activity of human CYP3A enzymes, especially CYP3A4 and CYP3A5. These results suggest that two phenolic hydroxyl groups in the resorcinol moiety of CBD may play an important role in the CYP3A inhibition., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Delta(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are the most prevalent biologically active constituents of Cannabis sativa. THC is the prototypic cannabinoid CB1 receptor agonist and is psychoactive and analgesic. CBD is also analgesic, but it is not a CB1 receptor agonist. Low voltage-activated T-type calcium channels, encoded by the Ca(V)3 gene family, regulate the excitability of many cells, including neurons involved in nociceptive processing. We examined the effects of THC and CBD on human Ca(V)3 channels stably expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells and T-type channels in mouse sensory neurons using whole-cell, patch clamp recordings. At moderately hyperpolarized potentials, THC and CBD inhibited peak Ca(V)3.1 and Ca(V)3.2 currents with IC(50) values of approximately 1 mum but were less potent on Ca(V)3.3 channels. THC and CBD inhibited sensory neuron T-type channels by about 45% at 1 mum. However, in recordings made from a holding potential of -70 mV, 100 nm THC or CBD inhibited more than 50% of the peak Ca(V)3.1 current. THC and CBD produced a significant hyperpolarizing shift in the steady state inactivation potentials for each of the Ca(V)3 channels, which accounts for inhibition of channel currents. Additionally, THC caused a modest hyperpolarizing shift in the activation of Ca(V)3.1 and Ca(V)3.2. THC but not CBD slowed Ca(V)3.1 and Ca(V)3.2 deactivation and inactivation kinetics. Thus, THC and CBD inhibit Ca(V)3 channels at pharmacologically relevant concentrations. However, THC, but not CBD, may also increase the amount of calcium entry following T-type channel activation by stabilizing open states of the channel.

The purpose of the present study was to develop novel cyclodextrin-containing sublingual formulations of cannabinoids. Complexation of model cannabinoids, Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), with randomly methylated beta-cyclodextrin (RM-beta-CD) and hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin (HP-beta-CD), were studied by the phase-solubility method. Due to better complexation efficiency, RM-beta-CD was selected for further studies. Solid THC/RM-beta-CD and CBD/RM-beta-CD complexes were prepared by freeze-drying. The dissolutions of both THC and CBD in the presence and absence of RM-beta-CD were determined. THC was selected for in vivo studies: the pharmacokinetics of THC after both sublingual and oral administrations of ethanolic THC and THC/RM-beta-CD complex solutions were studied in rabbits. The aqueous solubility of CBD and THC increased as a function of CD concentration, showing A(L)- and A(P)-type diagrams for HP-beta-CD and RM-beta-CD, respectively. Dissolution rates of THC/RM-beta-CD and CBD/RM-beta-CD complexes were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those of plain THC and plain CBD, respectively. The absolute bioavailability (F) of THC decreased in the following order: sublingual THC/RM-beta-CD solution (F = 12.1+/-1.4%; mean+/-S.D.; n = 4) > oral THC/RM-beta-CD solution (F = 4.0+/-6.0%) > or = sublingual ethanolic THC solution (F = 3.8+/-2.8%) > oral ethanolic THC solution (F = 1.3+/-1.4%). These results demonstrate that RM-beta-CD increases both the aqueous solubility and dissolution rate of these cannabinoids, making the development of novel sublingual formulation possible. These results also suggest that the sublingual administration of a THC/RM-beta-CD complex substantially increases the bioavailability of THC in rabbits.

An analytical method was developed for evaluating the cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), and delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta9-THC) level in human hair using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Hair samples (50 mg) were washed with isopropyl alcohol and cut into small fragments (< 1 mm). After adding a deuterated internal standard, the hair samples were incubated in 1.0 M NaOH for 10 min at 95 degrees C. The analytes from the resulting hydrolyzed samples were extracted using a mixture of n-hexane-ethyl acetate (75:25, v/v). The extracts were then evaporated, derivatized, and injected into the GC-MS. The recovery ranges of CBD, CBN, and delta9-THC at three concentration levels were 37.9-94.5% with good correlation coefficients (r2 >0.9989). The intra-day precision and accuracy ranged from -9.4% to 17.7%, and the inter-day precision and accuracy ranged from -15.5% to 14.5%, respectively. The limits of detection (LOD) for CBD, CBN, and delta9-THC were 0.005, 0.002, and 0.006 ng/mg, respectively. The applicability of this method of analyzing the hair samples from cannabis abusers was demonstrated.

Field studies on cannabis cultivation have provided socio-economic data relating to, inter alia, production, yield and income. But only laboratory analyses of cannabis plants can provide information on their chemical composition and their levels of psychoactive constituents, thus enabling them to be classed as a drug type or a fibre type. The present study, which covers cannabis in its fresh, dried and powdered forms, drew on fresh samples, obtained on the day they were harvested or immediately after preparation; that was done in order to prevent any alteration in the A-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) caused by the oxidation that takes place as the product ages. The purpose of this study is to determine the THC level in 245 specimens obtained from 30 cannabis plots in three provinces of northern Morocco: Al Hoceima and Chefchaouen, where cannabis cultivation has a long tradition, and Larache, where cannabis cultivation has started only recently. Qualitative analysis using high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection revealed the presence of both the acid and the decarboxylated form of the main cannabinoids, cannabidiol, THC and cannabinol, and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry was used for the characterization of minor cannibinoids. Quantitative analysis using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry made it possible to determine the average delta-9-THC content of cannabis in its fresh form (0.5 per cent), its dry form (2.21 per cent) and its powdered form (8.3 per cent). The results show that the traditional areas of cannabis cultivation--Al Hoceima and Chefchaouen--produce cannabis with a higher delta-9-THC content than the Larache region. In addition, the present study establishes that male plants, often considered deficient in delta-9-THC, contain levels of the same order as those recorded for female plants, both in the leaves and in the tops.

The purpose of this study was to quantify the in-vitro human skin transdermal flux of Delta8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta8-THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN). These cannabinoids are of interest because they are likely candidates for transdermal combination therapy. Differential thermal analysis and in-vitro diffusion studies with human tissue were completed for the compounds. Heats of fusion, melting points and relative thermodynamic activities were determined for the crystalline compounds, CBD and CBN. Flux, permeability, tissue concentration and lag times were measured in the diffusion experiments. CBN had a lower heat of fusion and corresponding higher calculated relative thermodynamic activity than CBD. Ethanol concentrations of 30 to 33% significantly increased the transdermal flux of Delta8-THC and CBD. Tissue concentrations of Delta8-THC were significantly higher than for CBN. Lag times for CBD were significantly smaller than for CBN. The permeabilities of CBD and CBN were 10-fold higher than for Delta8-THC. Combinations of these cannabinoids with ethanol will be further studied in transdermal patch formulations in vitro and in vivo, as significant flux levels of all the drugs were obtained. CBD, the most polar of the three drugs, and other more polar cannabinoids will also be the focus of future drug design studies for improved transdermal delivery rates.

delta 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabinol (CBN) are three constituents of the 16 that can be currently isolated from some Cannabis spp plants. Their identification in decontaminated hair can indicate exposure to cannabis. In this study, we propose a rapid, simple, and direct (without derivatization) screening procedure for the simultaneous identification and quantitation of CBD, CBN, and THC in hair of chronic cannabis abusers. Hair samples were washed with methylene chloride, hydrolyzed with sodium hydroxide, extracted with n-hexane-ethyl acetate (9:1, v/v), evaporated to dryness, and injected directly on a gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric system operating in electron-impact mode. THC-d3 was used as the internal standard. Thirty hair samples were tested. CBD was detected 23 times, CBN was detected 22 times, and THC was detected five times. Concentrations ranged from 0.03 to 3.00 ng/mg (mean, 0.44 ng/mg), from 0.01 to 1.07 ng/mg (mean, 0.13 ng/mg), and from 0.1 to 0.29 ng/mg hair (mean, 0.15 ng/mg) for CBD, CBN, and THC, respectively. These results show that this new screening procedure is suitable for the detection of CBD and CBN in the hair of cannabis abusers.