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Motor impairments of Parkinson's disease (PD) appear only after the loss of more than 70% of the DAergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). An earlier phase of this disease can be modeled in rats that received a unilateral infusion of the neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyrindine (MPTP) into the SNc. Though these animals do not present gross motor impairments, they rotate towards the lesioned side when challenged with DAergic drugs, like amphetamine and apomorphine. The present study aimed to test whether these effects occur because the drugs disrupt compensatory mechanisms that keep extracellular levels of dopamine in the striatum (DA(E)) unchanged. This hypothesis was tested by an in vivo microdialysis study in awake rats with two probes implanted in the right and left striatum. Undrugged rats did not present turning behaviour and their basal DA(E) did not differ between the lesioned and sham-lesioned sides. However, after apomorphine treatment, DA(E) decreased in both sides, but to a larger extent in the lesioned side at the time the animals started ipsiversive turning behaviour. After amphetamine challenge, DA(E) increased in both sides, becoming significantly higher in the non-lesioned side at the time the animals started ipsiversive turning behaviour. These results are in agreement with the hypothesis that absence of gross motor impairments in this rat model of early phase PD depends on maintenance of extracellular DA by mechanisms that may be disrupted by events demanding its alteration to higher or lower levels., (Copyright 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In the present review we propose a model to explain the role of the basal ganglia in sensorimotor and cognitive functions based on a growing body of behavioural, anatomical, physiological, and neurochemical evidence accumulated over the last decades. This model proposes that the body and its surrounding environment are represented in the striatum in a fragmented and repeated way, like a mosaic consisting of the fragmented images of broken mirrors. Each fragment forms a functional unit representing articulated parts of the body with motion properties, objects of the environment which the subject can approach or manipulate, and locations the subject can move to. These units integrate the sensory properties and movements related to them. The repeated and widespread distribution of such units amplifies the combinatorial power of the associations among them. These associations depend on the phasic release of dopamine in the striatum triggered by the saliency of stimuli and will be reinforced by the rewarding consequences of the actions related to them. Dopamine permits synaptic plasticity in the corticostriatal synapses. The striatal units encoding the same stimulus/action send convergent projections to the internal segment of the globus pallidus (GPi) and to the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) that stimulate or hold the action through a thalamus-frontal cortex pathway. According to this model, this is how the basal ganglia select actions based on environmental stimuli and store adaptive associations as nondeclarative memories such as motor skills, habits, and memories formed by Pavlovian and instrumental conditioning.

The roles of the nigrostriatal pathway are far beyond the simple control of motor functions. The tonic release of dopamine in the dorsal and ventral striatum controls the choice of proper actions toward a given environmental situation. In the striatum, a specific action is triggered by a specific stimulus associated with it. When the subject faces a novel and salient stimulus, the phasic release of dopamine allows synaptic plasticity in the cortico-striatal synapses. Neurons of different regions of cortical areas make synapses that converge to the same medium spine neurons of the striatum. The convergent associations form functional units encoding body parts, objects, locations, and symbolic representations of the subject's world. Such units emerge in the striatum in a repetitive manner, like a mosaic of broken mirrors. The phasic release of dopamine allows the association of units to encode an action of the subject directed to an object or location with the outcome of this action. Reinforced stimulus-action-outcome associations will affect future decision making when the same stimulus (object, location, idea) is presented to the subject in the future. In the absence of a minimal amount of striatal dopamine, no action is initiated as seen in Parkinson's disease subjects. The abnormal and improper association of these units leads to the initiation of unpurposeful and sometimes repetitive actions, as those observed in dyskinetic patients. The association of an excessive reinforcement of some actions, like drug consumption, leads to drug addiction. Improper associations of ideas and unpleasant outcomes may be related to traumatic and depressive symptoms common in many diseases, including Parkinson's disease. The same can be said about the learning and memory impairments observed in demented and nondemented Parkinson's disease patients.

Rats with unilateral lesion of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) have been used as a model of Parkinson's disease. Depending on the lesion protocol and on the drug challenge, these rats rotate in opposite directions. The aim of the present study was to propose a model to explain how critical factors determine the direction of these turns. Unilateral lesion of the SNpc was induced with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) or 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). Separate analysis showed that neither the type of neurotoxin nor the site of lesion along the nigrostriatal pathway was able to predict the direction of the turns these rats made after they were challenged with apomorphine. However, the combination of these two factors determined the magnitude of the lesion estimated by tyrosine-hydroxylase immunohistochemistry and HPLC-ED measurement of striatal dopamine. Very small lesions did not cause turns, medium-size lesions caused ipsiversive turns, and large lesions caused contraversive turns. Large-size SNpc lesions resulted in an increased binding of [(3)H]raclopride to D2 receptors, while medium-size lesions reduced the binding of [(3)H]SCH-23390 D1 receptors in the ipsilateral striatum. These results are coherent with the model proposing that after challenged with a dopamine receptor agonist, unilaterally SNpc-lesioned rats rotate toward the side with the weaker activation of dopamine receptors. This activation is weaker on the lesioned side in animals with small SNpc lesions due to the loss of dopamine, but stronger in animals with large lesions due to dopamine receptor supersensitivity.

Abstract: The role of dopamine (DA) in rewarding motivated actions is well established but its role in learning how to avoid aversive events is still controversial. Here we tested the role of D2-like DA receptors in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and the dorsolateral striatum (DLS) of rats in the learning and performance of conditioned avoidance responses (CAR). Adult male Wistar rats received systemic, intra-NAc or intra-DLS (pre- or post-training) administration of a D2-like receptor agonist (quinpirole) or antagonist ((−)sulpiride) and were given two sessions in the two-way active avoidance task. The main effects observed were: (i) sulpiride and lower (likely pre-synaptic) doses of quinpirole decreased the number of CARs and increased the number of escape failures; (ii) higher doses of quinpirole (likely post-synaptic) increased inter-trial crossings and failures; (iii) pre-training administration of sulpiride decreased the number of CARs in both training and test sessions when infused into the NAc, but this effect was observed only in the test session when it was infused into the DLS; (iv) post-training administration of sulpiride decreased CARs in the test session when infused into the NAc but not DLS. These findings suggest that activation of D2 receptors in the NAc is critical for fast adaptation to responding to unconditioned and conditioned aversive stimuli while activation of these receptors in the DLS is needed for a slower learning of how to respond to the same stimuli based on previous experiences. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]