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Dogs demonstrate behavioural changes and cognitive decline during aging. Compared to laboratory dogs, little is known about aging in pet dogs exposed to different environments and nutrition. In this study, we examined the effects of age, an enriched diet and lifelong training on different behavioural and cognitive measures in 119 pet dogs (>6yrs). Dogs were maintained on either an enriched diet or a control diet for one year. Lifelong training was calculated using a questionnaire where owners filled in their dog's training experiences to date. Before commencing the diet and after one year of dietary treatment, they were tested in the Modified Vienna Canine Cognitive Battery (MVCCB) consisting of 11 subtests to examine correlated individual differences in a set of tasks measuring general, social and physical cognition and related behaviours. Fourty two behavioural variables were coded and were subjected to principle component analyses for variable reduction. Twelve subtest level components and two Z-transformed variables were subjected to exploratory factor analysis which resulted in six final factors: Problem solving, Trainability, Sociability, Boldness, Activity-independence and Dependency. Problem solving, Sociability, Boldness, and Dependency showed a linear decline with age, suggesting that the MVCCB can be used as a tool to measure behavioural and cognitive decline in aged pet dogs. An enriched diet and lifelong training had no effect on these factors, calling attention to the fact that the real world impact of nutritional and other interventions in possibly counteracting the effects of aging, should be further investigated in pet dogs living under diverse conditions, in order to understand their ultimate effects., Competing Interests: This research was fully funded by Royal Canin, Aimargues, France (Project Number: FA 37214007). JS was an employee with Royal Canin, Aimargues, France. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials".

Serial blood glucose measurements are currently regarded as the 'gold standard' for evaluating glycaemic control of canine diabetic patients. The aim of this study was to investigate a subcutaneous continuous glucose monitoring system based on microdialysis. Analyses were performed by taking interstitial glucose samples from two different anatomical regions (interscapular region [IR], thoracic region [TR]) in six healthy Beagle dogs during induced hypoglycaemia and hyperglycaemia, the feeding period and a period of stable glucose values. For comparison, plasma glucose concentration was measured simultaneously by a hexokinase-based automated chemistry analyser. The mean absolute differences ranged from 11.7 mg/dL (SD 23.5 mg/dL, TR) to 5.3 mg/dL (SD 19.2 mg/dL, IR) with a correlation of r=0.43-0.92 (P<0.01). Sensitivity for the detection of hypoglycaemia was 85.0% TR and 93.3% IR, and the specificity was 99.5% TR and 99.7% IR, respectively. In a modified Clarke error grid analysis, 99.3% TR and 99.7% IR of the values fell into zone A and B. Collapse of the microdialysis fibre was a recurrent problem although this was easily detectable by fluctuations in system pressure. The microdialysis system reflects physiological as well as induced variations in blood glucose in a valid manner., (Copyright 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Specific situations and legal requirements in some countries require dogs to wear a muzzle on a regular basis. Ongoing discussions within different national authorities are trying to balance the safety of the public against welfare of dogs when being walked. However, detailed information on an ideal type of muzzle, muzzle fit, introduction techniques to wearing a muzzle, and effects of muzzle use on the physical condition and behavior of dogs is very limited. Hence, this study collected data via an online survey on the frequency and circumstances of muzzle use and observed effects on dogs when wearing a muzzle by also incorporating training techniques and muzzle types used. Of 1,862 respondents, only 21.6% indicated their dog never wears a muzzle (average age: 5.8 ± 3.6 years). Around half of the owners stated that their dog wears a muzzle only when mandatory by legislation (47.8%) and/or when necessary to prevent a bite (47.5%). Public transport and crowded public places were situations where muzzles were used most often. Although basket-type muzzles (made of BioThane, plastic, wire) were used most often, only 71.3% reported a fit not clearly impairing dog welfare. The muzzle introduction technique (habituation, short training, intense training, no preparation) used significantly impacted on adverse behaviors observed when wearing a muzzle for the first time and on the ongoing behavior when muzzled such as trying to pull the muzzle off, rubbing the nose against objects, or freezing. Using food during muzzle training significantly decreased levels of passive avoidance during fastening and increased the likelihood of dogs actively putting their nose into the muzzle. Negative effects on the behavior when wearing a muzzle were reported by 19.6% of owners and labeled with the terms 'insecure, apathetic, dull, passive, distressed, anxious, unwell, agitated, nervous, tense, sad, or miserable.' Changes in the dog behavior were perceived as an advantage with respect to inability to access food (41.9%) and when used for veterinary visits (30.9%). Observed physical damage of either fur or skin and effects on thermoregulation and the ocular or gastrointestinal tract were reported by 161 (12.9%) owners. The results of this survey indicate a need to educate dog owners on muzzle fit and training protocols to reduce negative effects on dog welfare. In addition, potential alterations in intraspecies communication, other social behaviors, and welfare need to be explored in more detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The majority of dogs and cats are fearful during veterinary visits, and some individuals may show aggression as a result. We review ways to avoid negative experiences and promote positive emotions in animals visiting the veterinarian. Whenever an animal is in the practice, the veterinary team should endeavour to make the visit as pleasant as possible, by using non-threatening body language and by creating positive associations. High-value food (unless an animal needs to be fasted) or toys should be used generously throughout the visit. In the interaction with the animals, low-stress handling methods, brief pauses and adjusting the procedure based on the animal's body language help them to feel secure. Distractions can be used to minimise perceived pain such as from injections. If a known painful area needs to be treated, pain killers are advised. For animals that are very fearful, several medication options are available that can be given prior to the veterinary visit to help them with their fears. With reward-based training, animals can learn to accept veterinary procedures. A stress-free veterinary visit benefits all involved parties—the animals, their owners, as well as the veterinary team. A high proportion of dogs and cats are fearful during veterinary visits, which in some cases may escalate into aggression. Here, we discuss factors that contribute to negative emotions in a veterinary setting and how these can be addressed. We briefly summarise the available evidence for the interventions discussed. The set-up of the waiting area (e.g., spatial dividers; elevated places for cat carriers), tailoring the examination and the treatment to the individual, considerate handling (minimal restraint when possible, avoiding leaning over or cornering animals) and offering high-value food or toys throughout the visit can promote security and, ideally, positive associations. Desensitisation and counterconditioning are highly recommended, both to prevent and address existing negative emotions. Short-term pain from injections can be minimised by using tactile and cognitive distractions and topical analgesics, which are also indicated for painful procedures such as ear cleanings. Recommendations for handling fearful animals to minimise aggressive responses are discussed. However, anxiolytics or sedation should be used whenever there is a risk of traumatising an animal or for safety reasons. Stress-reducing measures can decrease fear and stress in patients and consequently their owners, thus strengthening the relationship with the clients as well as increasing the professional satisfaction of veterinary staff. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Situations that are emotional and arousing can have an effect on the memorability of events. The beneficial effect of dog–human play immediately after learning a new task has recently been shown to improve training performance in companion dogs (Labrador Retrievers) when required to solve the same task 24 h later. This follow-on study re-trained the same dogs after a period of one year in the same two-choice discrimination paradigm. Analyzed factors included: the age of the dogs, the effect of the trainer identity, training performance in the previous study, heart rate, and the number of trials and errors to meet the re-training criterion. The results show that all dogs relearned the task; however, dogs from the dog–human play group needed significantly fewer trials and made significantly less errors when compared to the control group. To the author's knowledge, this is the first evidence that post-training activity may influence memory in dogs up to 1 year after the initial task acquisition. However, when interpreting the overall results, the limitations due to the low sample size must be taken into account. Arousing and emotional situations can improve cognitive performance and the memorability of events. Recently, the enhancement of training performance in Labrador Retriever dogs through 30 min of dog–human play immediately after acquiring a novel task, when compared to a resting period, was demonstrated. This follow-on study used the same pseudo-randomized, counterbalanced, between-subject study design, and 11 Labrador Retrievers were re-trained in the identical two-choice discrimination paradigm after a period of 1 year. The playful activities group needed significantly less trials and made significantly less errors to successfully reach the re-training criterion (Mann–Whitney U test, critical value of U at p < 0.05 is 5, U = 5, Z = 1.73, p = 0.04 and U = 4.5, Z = 1.8, p = 0.03, respectively). Following model simplification of a multiple factor/covariate general linear model analysis, the type of intervention, the number of trials needed to re-learn the task after 24 h, the average heart rate during the intervention a year ago, and age were significantly correlated to the number of trials and errors needed to resolve the task. A significant difference due to intervention allocation (heart rate during the intervention, trials needed to re-learn the task after 24 h) between the groups was confirmed. Age did not significantly differ between the groups; nevertheless, the effects of ageing cannot be fully excluded, given the low sample size. No effects of the trainer and of the cortisol concentrations (of the previous year) were observed. This is the first evidence that post-training activity may influence memory up to 1 year after task acquisition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One way to reduce fear and lack of compliance during veterinary procedures is 'cooperative care training', training animals to voluntarily participate in husbandry and medical care. Here we assessed the effects of cooperative care training on heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), tympanic membrane temperature (TMT) and compliance (i.e., all steps of the examination completed) of dogs during a veterinary examination. A blinded controlled trial with 47 dogs (training group (TG): 26; control group (CG): 21) was carried out. Forty dogs completed the study (TG: 22, CG:18). Dogs and their owners took part in a standardized veterinary visit twice (visit interval: 140 ± 23 days). In between, the TG took part in cooperative care training (10 ± 2 group training sessions, additional training at home). Linear mixed models were calculated (fixed effects HR/HRV: group* visit* period, TMT: group* visit; random effect: dogID). Compliance (completed steps of exam) was analyzed using McNemar tests. HR/HRV was higher/lower during the veterinary examination compared to the waiting room (period: p < 0.001), indicating that the examination was more stressful. No significant differences in HR/HRV regarding group*visit were found. TMT, taken at the end of each examination, resulted in a significant group*visit interaction (p = 0.008); stress appeared increased during visit 2 in the CG whereas in the TG a heterogeneous pattern, with 42% of dogs with reduced rightward bias, was observed. Compliance was lower in the TG during the second visit (p = 0.04). Trainer and owners claimed observable improvement of behavior during training and a decrease in HR between visits correlated significantly with trainer perception of high training success (r s = −0.52, p = 0.049). Overall, transfer of trained skills to the veterinary examination performed by a team blinded to the group allocation was poor. TMT analyses and HR/HRV data within the training group, suggest that the training had differing effects on the dogs based on their previous tolerance of handling and their progress made during training. Further research how to optimize training programs, including desensitization and counterconditioning, and their outcomes is needed. • We assessed effects of cooperative care training on dog compliance and physiology. • Less training group dogs complied with taking rectal temperature at visit 2. • The veterinary examination led to high heart rate and low HRV in all dogs. • After training, 41% had a reduced rightward bias in tympanic temperature (TMT). • In control dogs, rightward bias in TMT suggests increased stress during visit 2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]