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We examined the effects of a teacher coaching program on discipline referrals using records from 7,794 U.S. classrooms in secondary schools. Some classroom teachers took part in a trial: They were randomized to receive intensive coaching in a focal classroom or to form a business-as-usual control group. The remaining teachers taught in the same schools as the teachers in the trial. Previous research suggested that the coaching program was associated with increasing equity in discipline referrals in focal, coached classrooms. The current study addressed whether effects found in the teachers' focal, coached classrooms generalized to diverse classrooms in their course load. Results suggested that the coaching program had no generalized effects on reducing referrals with African American students or racial referral gaps in classrooms with coached teachers, relative to the control teachers and the other teachers in the schools. We offer implications for coaching programs and directions for equity-oriented efforts to reduce racial discipline gaps.

Exclusionary discipline is commonly employed in U. S. schools and disproportionately affects students of color. This article describes current approaches to discipline and contextualizes these approaches historically with particular attention to racial dynamics and violence. We identify the harmful effects of exclusionary discipline and describe efforts to move schools away from exclusionary approaches through school-wide positive behavioral intervention supports, social emotional-learning, and restorative practices. We identify limitations of current discipline reform efforts that are hampering progress toward equitable schooling. We explicate the need for integrative and comprehensive culturally responsive approaches to positive student development that are equity oriented and identify implementation challenges and tools for addressing these challenges.

Across the United States, schools are implementing Restorative Practices (RP) to improve school climate and address disparities in discipline. The scope of such RP initiatives can remain ambiguous to school leaders. Given the need for greater clarity about RP initiatives, the current study sought to identify the varying components of RP implementation for building infrastructure, strengthening staff and student capacity, and enacting multi-tiered supports. The current qualitative study draws on interview data with 18 school-based RP practitioners and principals from a large urban district in the Northeast. We used grounded theory to analyze the semi-structured interviews. Qualitative coding and analysis resulted in the development of 12 indicators of RP implementation. The 12 indicators offer a novel, practice-based guide for system-level consultation with a comprehensive approach to schoolwide buy-in, staff training, discipline policy reform, and equity and social justice.

Black students are issued school discipline sanctions at rates higher than members of other racial and ethnic groups, underscoring the need for professional development that addresses this gap. In 86 secondary school classrooms, a randomized controlled trial examined the effects of a 2-year teacher-coaching program, My Teaching Partner Secondary (MTP-S). Results from the second year of coaching and from the year after coaching was discontinued replicated previous findings from the first year of coaching--intervention teachers had no significant disparities in discipline referrals between Black students and their classmates, as compared with teachers in the control condition, for whom racial discipline gaps remained. Thus, MTP-S effects were replicated in the second year of coaching and maintained when coaching was withdrawn. Mediational analyses identified mechanisms for these effects; Black students had a low probability of receiving disciplinary referrals with teachers who increased skills to engage students in high-level analysis and inquiry.

Advocates call for schools with high suspension rates to receive technical assistance in adopting "proven-effective" systematic supports. Such supports include teacher professional development. This call is justified given evidence that good teaching matters. But what types of professional development should be funded? Increasingly, research points to the promise of programs that are sustained, rigorous, and focused on teachers' interactions with students. The current study tests whether a professional development program with these three characteristics helped change teachers' use of exclusionary discipline practices--especially with their African American students. Exclusionary discipline is when a classroom teacher sends a student to the administrators' office for perceived misbehavior. Administrators then typically assign a consequence, usually in the form of suspension (in-school or out-of school). The My Teaching Partner-Secondary (MTP-S) aims to improve teachers' interactions with their students when implementing instruction and managing behavior. MTP-S helps teachers offer clear routines, implement consistent rules, and monitor behavior in a proactive way. The program also supports teachers in developing warm, respectful relationships that recognize students' needs for autonomy and leadership. Teachers are paired with a coach for an entire school year (sustained approach), they regularly reflect on video recordings of their classroom instruction and carefully observe how they interact with students, and they apply the validated Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS-S) to improve the quality of their interactions (rigorous approach). In the current study, a randomized controlled trial found that teachers receiving MTP-S relied less on exclusionary discipline compared to the control teachers. Specifically, MTP-S teachers issued fewer exclusionary discipline referrals to their African American students. This is the first study to show that programs like MTP-S that focus on teacher-student interactions in a sustained manner using a rigorous approach can actually reduce the disproportionate use of exclusionary discipline with African American students. More broadly, the findings offer policymakers direction in identifying types of professional development programs that have promise for reducing the racial discipline gap.

Racial inequity is a pernicious problem in American schools. Discrepancies in school discipline show that black students are two to three times more likely than their peers to be suspended and expelled, even for similar infractions. This directly affects the racial achievement gap, school dropout, and involvement in the juvenile justice system. New York City's Morningside Center for Teaching Social Responsibility is committed to improving educational equity by supporting schools in implementing social and emotional learning (SEL) and restorative practice. Restorative practices focus on strengthening relationships, collaborative problem solving, and giving voice to the person harmed and the person causing the harm. Principals, educators, school staff, parents, and students are empowered to participate in restorative justice efforts. In fall 2019, Morningside will kick off a randomized controlled trial with 18 schools in the Queens and Brooklyn sections of New York City to examine the effectiveness of tools, professional learning supports, and overall approach to integrating restorative practices and SEL from an equity perspective. The research will track specific ways school leaders can support restorative practices, including: (1) designating a space in the building for restorative practices interventions; (2) making time in the curriculum and schedule for SEL skill-building efforts; and (3) limiting the ratio of students to advisors in advisory periods.Teamwork

Districts have been engaged in efforts to reduce "differential processing" of discipline-referred students based on their racial backgrounds. They strive for fair assignment of exclusionary consequences across racial groups. The current study examines discipline records for one academic year in an urban school district (N = 9,039 discipline-referred students) to identify the factors associated with equitable assignment of out-of-school suspension (OSS). Multilevel logistic regression found that student participation in restorative interventions substantially reduced the odds that individual students received OSS. However, such participation was only marginally associated with more comparable assignment of OSS to Black students relative to their White peers. Together these findings suggest that alternatives to suspension, such as restorative interventions, may yield benefits for all student groups, but they may result in only marginal narrowing of the disparities in suspension rates between Black and White students. This indicates that greater attention is needed to address the inequitable school contexts in which disparities arise.

Race and gender disparities in school discipline and associated harms have been well documented for decades. Suspension from school can reduce instructional time and impede academic progress for students who may already be lagging in their achievement. This chapter offers a research-based framework for increasing equity in school discipline. The framework is composed of ten principles that hold promise for helping educators to address student behavior in a developmentally appropriate manner and reduce race and gender disparities in school discipline. The framework also informs directions for future research in school discipline.

Racial disparities in teacher-issued office discipline referrals are less discussed than the well-documented suspension gaps. Discipline referrals, like suspension, can lead to lost instructional time. Although individuals are sent out of the classroom for a range of reasons, Black students, as a group, are at greater risk of being sent out than White students. In fact, studies have shown that when comparing students with similar characteristics, Black students remain at higher risk of being referred. In this article, we argue there is a need to raise teacher awareness about negative racial beliefs and the conditions under which those beliefs impact decision-making during discipline incidents. We further point out the need to foster teacher awareness about the power of positive beliefs in affecting student outcomes and the malleability of beliefs and disciplinary practices through intervention.

A large urban district (N = 90,546 students, n = 180 schools) implemented restorative interventions as a response to school discipline incidents. Findings from multilevel modeling of student discipline records (n = 9,921) revealed that youth from groups that tend to be overrepresented in suspensions and expulsions (e.g., Black, Latino, and Native American youth; boys; and students in special education) had similar, if not greater, rates of participation in restorative interventions than their peers. First-semester participants in restorative interventions had lower odds of receiving office discipline referrals (OR 0.21, p < 0.001) and suspensions (OR 0.07, p < 0.001) in the second semester. However, the suspension gap between Black and White students persisted. Implications for reform in school discipline practices are noted.

Restorative approaches to school discipline are increasingly being implemented throughout the United States in an attempt to reduce reliance on suspension and eradicate the racial discipline gap. Yet, little is known about the experience of students in classrooms utilizing restorative practices (RP). This study draws on student surveys (N = 412) in 29 high school classrooms. Hierarchical linear modeling and regression analyses show that high RP-implementing teachers had more positive relationships with their diverse students. Students perceived them as more respectful and they issued fewer exclusionary discipline referrals compared with low RP implementers. In addition, the findings demonstrate some initial promise of well-implemented RP for narrowing the racial discipline gap. The study found that higher RP implementers issued fewer discipline referrals to Latino and African American students compared with lower RP implementers. The study findings have implications for equity-focused consultation in schools that honor student experience of new programming.

Most research on school climate focuses on student well-being, with less attention on the safety of school faculty. The current study examined the relationship between an authoritative school climate (characterized by high levels of student support and disciplinary structure) and both teacher reports of victimization and school records of threats against staff. Regression analyses in a statewide sample of 280 high schools showed that structure (as measured by student- and teacher-reported clarity of school rules) and support (as measured by teacher-reported help seeking) were associated with less teacher victimization, after controlling for school and neighborhood demographics. Support, but not structure, was a consistent predictor of school records of threats against faculty. These findings offer implications for improving the workplace for teachers and staff. (Contains 2 tables.)

This study examined the relationship between structure and support in the high school climate and suspension rates in a statewide sample of 199 schools. School climate surveys completed by 5,035 ninth grade students measured characteristics of authoritative schools, defined as highly supportive, yet highly structured with academic and behavioral expectations. Multivariate analyses showed that schools low on characteristics of an authoritative school had the highest schoolwide suspension rates for Black and White students after statistically controlling for school demographics. Furthermore, schools low on both structure and support had the largest racial discipline gaps. These findings highlight the characteristics of risky settings that may not meet the developmental needs of adolescents and may contribute to disproportionate disciplinary outcomes for Black students. (Contains 1 note, 4 tables, and 3 figures.)

In this study we examined authoritative discipline theory, which posits that 2 complementary aspects of school climate--structure and support--are important for adolescents' safety in school. Using a statewide sample of over 7,300 ninth-grade students and 2,900 teachers randomly selected from 290 high schools, we showed, using hierarchical linear modeling, that consistent enforcement of school discipline (structure) and availability of caring adults (support) were associated with school safety. Structure and support were associated with less bullying and victimization after we controlled for size of school enrollment and the proportion of ethnic minority and low-income students. These findings suggest that discipline practices should not be polarized into a "get tough" versus "give support" debate because both structure and support contribute to school safety for adolescents. (Contains 5 tables.)

Many African American adolescents who enter high school with low achievement are at-risk for being perceived as defiant and uncooperative by their classroom teachers. This generalized view of risk, however, offers little understanding of the differentiated behavior these students have with their teachers. The study followed 35 African American students, who have a history of low achievement, across multiple classrooms in their school day. Hierarchical linear modeling showed that there was greater variability in teacher-perceived defiance, cooperation, and office discipline referrals "within-student" compared with "between-students." This shows that individual students tended to be perceived differently across their teachers. Similarly, the study found that students also tended to differentiate their teachers. Students who reported unfair treatment with a particular teacher were more likely to receive a discipline referral and be perceived as defiant and uncooperative by that teacher. Implications for a strengths-based approach to classroom behavior are discussed. (Contains 1 figure and 5 tables.)

The gap in achievement across racial and ethnic groups has been a focus of education research for decades, but the disproportionate suspension and expulsion of Black, Latino, and American Indian students has received less attention. This article synthesizes research on racial and ethnic patterns in school sanctions and considers how disproportionate discipline might contribute to lagging achievement among students of color. It further examines the evidence for student, school, and community contributors to the racial and ethnic patterns in school sanctions, and it offers promising directions for gap-reducing discipline policies and practices. (Contains 1 note.)

The authors contend that zero tolerance discipline policies are inconsistent with adolescent developmental needs for authoritative, as distinguished from authoritarian, discipline. Previous research has applied the notion of authoritative parenting to teaching styles in classrooms, and a similar model of authoritative discipline can guide schoolwide discipline policies and practices (Gregory & Weinstein, 2004; Walker, 2008; Wentzel, 2002). Schoolwide authoritative discipline combines high levels of both structure and support. The authors conceptualize school structure as adequate supervision of students and consistent and fair enforcement of school rules. They conceptualize school support as the availability of positive adult-student relationships, help for struggling students, and programs to address students' nonacademic needs. With its firm but fair and supportive approach, authoritative discipline can create a safe and secure learning environment conducive to student engagement and achievement.

Cooperative behavior is important for well-functioning high school classrooms in which students trust their teachers and actively engage in academic tasks. Yet, discipline referrals for disruption and defiance are all too common and can result in lost instructional time and increased teacher stress. As such, more needs to be understood about trusting and cooperative interactions in classrooms. This study examined teachers' relational approach to discipline as a predictor of high school students' behavior and their trust in teacher authority. Findings from interviews and surveys with 32 teachers and 32 discipline-referred students supported a mediational model; the association between a relational approach to discipline and cooperative or defiant behavior was mediated by adolescents' perceptions of their teachers as trustworthy authority figures. Teachers may earn the trust and cooperation of students if they use relationship building to prevent discipline problems. Implications for school psychologists' consultation with teachers and the racial discipline gap are discussed. (Contains 2 tables and 3 figures.)

While the achievement gap between African American students and white and Asian students is discussed widely in the media (e.g. Schemo, 2003), the gap in discipline between African Americans and these groups has gained much less attention. Few studies have explored teacher processes that affect the over-representation of African American students in discipline referrals. Teachers decide which students are considered a discipline problem, what is driving the problem, and how to intervene. This qualitative study examines teachers' implicit theories about the causes of discipline problems, and specifically examines how they consider race and culture in their theorizing. The results show that teachers considered forces inside the school, the adolescent, and the community as causes for misbehavior. Most teachers' theories were culture- and race-blind and could not account for the discipline gap. Drawing on the teachers' theories, we present a new framework of Culturally Relevant Discipline that takes into account the ecology of the school, community, and society in understanding discipline problems. This multifaceted framework has implications for culturally and racially conscious solutions to narrow the discipline gap.

School suspension is the most widely used disciplinary practice in U.S. schools. It is a programmatic regularity, as Seymour would say. He would also say "programmatic regularities have implicit or explicit outcomes." Like Seymour, the author is concerned about what he describes as the "frequent discrepancy between regularities and intended outcomes" (Sarason, 1982, p. 100). The assumption about suspension is that it serves as a deterrent to future infractions or as a punishment. But for some students, being sent home is negative reinforcement, especially if they escape from the boredom of school and into the stimulating world of videogames. So, the discrepancy between the programmatic regularity of suspension and intended outcomes can be quite large. Perhaps even more pernicious are the implicit outcomes associated with the programmatic regularity of suspension. As more Black students are suspended, teachers might perceive Black students differently than other groups--some have called this the "criminalization of youth of color." Seymour (1982) reminds everyone that "practices are not rationally selected from the universe of alternatives. That we justify them as if they have been selected so says far more about our capacity to delude ourselves and to resist the consequences of change than it does about the effectiveness of the present practice." Keeping Seymour's (1982) metaphor of "the universe of alternatives" in mind, the author intervenes with schools and teachers to challenge the over-reliance on suspension, especially its disproportionate application to Black students. She seeks to identify practices that offer new alternatives for students who have been pushed out from instruction because of their perceived rule-breaking behavior. In sum, she strives to reflect the next generation of scholars and interventionists who carry forward Seymour's shift from a tendency to accept practices (normalize and naturalize them) and to a focus on the transformation of social settings.

African Americans are over-represented in school suspensions, yet little is known about the underlying contributing dynamics. Study 1 reviewed a high school's annual discipline data and 442 students referred for defiance. African Americans were over-represented in referrals for defiance and most students received referrals from one or several teachers. This suggests that defiance referrals are specific to the classroom situation. Examining the situational specificity of referrals, Study 2 used repeated measures and multilevel modeling with a sub-sample of 30 African American students. Attendance, grades, and teacher reports showed that students behaved more defiantly and less cooperatively with teachers perceived as having untrustworthy authority. Predictors of African American student trust in teacher authority included teacher caring and high expectations, offering implications for lowering the discipline gap. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]