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Background: Fat-soluble vitamin E and carotenoids are regarded as being protective against chronic diseases. Little is known about the effect of dietary fat on the bioavailability of these compounds., Objective: The objective of this study was to assess the effect of the amount of dietary fat on plasma concentrations of vitamin E and carotenoids after supplementation with these compounds., Design: During two 7-d periods, 4 groups of 14-15 volunteers received daily, with a low-fat hot meal, 1 of 4 different supplements: vitamin E (50 mg), alpha- plus beta-carotene (8 mg), lutein esters (8 mg lutein), or placebo. The supplements were provided in a low- or high-fat spread supplied in random sequence during either of the 2 experimental periods., Results: As anticipated, plasma concentrations of vitamin E, alpha- and beta-carotene, and lutein were significantly higher in the supplemented groups than in the placebo group. The amount of dietary fat consumed with the hot meal (3 or 36 g) did not affect the increases in plasma concentrations of vitamin E (20% increase with the low-fat spread and 23% increase with the high-fat spread) or alpha- and beta-carotene (315% and 139% with the low-fat spread and 226% and 108% with the high-fat spread). The plasma lutein response was higher when lutein esters were consumed with the high-fat spread (207% increase) than with the low-fat spread (88% increase)., Conclusion: Optimal uptake of vitamin E and alpha- and beta-carotene requires a limited amount of fat whereas the amount of fat required for optimal intestinal uptake of lutein esters is higher. 2000;71:-93.

A study was conducted in 12 healthy males and 12 healthy females (mean age 36 years, mean body mass index 24 kg/m2), to determine the effect of a margarine enriched with phytosterol esters on faecal short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and faecal bacterial enzyme activities, viable faecal microflora count, female sex hormones and serum cholesterol concentrations. The study design was a two-period, parallel dosing, randomized, placebo-controlled dietary study. Under controlled dietary conditions, participants consumed 40 g of the control margarine for 21 and 28 consecutive days for males and females, respectively. This was followed immediately by the second part of the study where subjects were equally and randomly allocated to consume daily 40 g of either the control or the test margarine, containing 8.6 g vegetable oil phytosterols (a mixture of beta-sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol), also for 21 or 28 days. All females were shown to have a regular menstrual cycle and were on an established method of contraception not involving oral contraceptives. When compared with the control group values, the test group showed a significant reduction in serum total and LDL cholesterol concentrations of 18 and 23% (P < 0.001; P < 0.001) respectively, in faecal lactic acid concentration (P = 0.039) and in serum progesterone levels (P = 0.021). There were no other significant treatment effects. Within each group a number of significant changes occurred compared to baseline. In the test group, faecal lactic acid concentration and the ratio of acetic acid:total SCFA; and the ratio of butyric acid:total SCFA, in the control group were both significantly reduced (P = 0.016). Compared to baseline, azo-reductase activity was significantly reduced in the control group (P = 0.047). Total faecal aerobes (P = 0.028), lactobacilli (P = 0.003) and staphylococci (P = 0.025) content was also significantly reduced in the control group, while in the test group only lactobacilli content was reduced (P = 0.019). Of the significant findings reported in this study, none was considered to be of biological importance except the beneficial reduction in serum total and LDL-cholesterol concentrations. The daily consumption of a margarine enriched with 8.6 g vegetable oil phytosterols did not affect the bacterial profile or the metabolic activities of the gut microflora, nor did it result in biologically relevant effects on serum female sex hormone levels. The margarine enriched with the vegetable oil phytosterols was well tolerated by both male and female volunteers.

Effects of butter and 2 types of margarine on blood lipid and lipoprotein concentrations were compared in a controlled diet study with 23 men and 23 women. Table spreads, added to a common basal diet, provided 8.3% of energy as fat. Diets averaged 34.6% of energy as fat and 15.5% as protein. Each diet was fed for 5 wk in a 3 x 3 Latin-square design. One margarine (TFA-M) approximated the average trans monoene content of trans fatty acid-containing margarines in the United States (17% trans fatty acids by dry wt). The other margarine (PUFA-M) was free of trans unsaturated fatty acids; it contained approximately twice the polyunsaturated fatty acid content of TFA-M (49% compared with 27% polyunsaturated fatty acids). The tub-type margarines had similar physical properties at ambient temperature. Fasting blood lipids and lipoproteins were determined in 2 samples taken from the subjects during the fifth week of each dietary treatment. Compared with butter, total cholesterol was 3.5% lower (P=0.009) after consumption of TFA-M and 5.4% lower (P< 0.001) after consumption of PUFA-M. Similarly, LDL cholesterol was 4.9% lower (P=0.005) and 6.7% lower (P< 0.001) after consumption of TFA-M and PUFA-M, respectively. Neither margarine differed from butter in its effect on HDL cholesterol or triacylglycerols. Thus, consumption of TFA-M or PUFA-M improved blood lipid profiles for the major lipoproteins associated with cardiovascular risk when compared with butter, with a greater improvement with PUFA-M than with TFA-M.

Objectives: To compare the effects of free access to reduced fat products or their full fat equivalents on fat and energy intake, body weight, plasma lipids and fat-soluble antioxidants concentrations and haemostasis variables., Design: A multicentre open randomised controlled trial in which intervention and control groups were followed in parallel for six months. Volunteers had free access to 44 different foods either in reduced fat or full fat version, covering between 30 and 40% of energy intake. The remainder of energy intake was covered by foods bought in regular shops., Setting: Zeist, Wageningen and Maastricht, The Netherlands., Subjects: Two hundred and forty-one non-obese healthy volunteers who had no intention to lose weight., Main Outcome Measures: Food intake, body weight, plasma lipid, vitamin E, beta-carotene, lycopene and fibrinogen concentrations, plasma factor VII clotting activity, and plasminogen-activator-inhibitor-I antigen level., Results: One hundred and three volunteers in the full fat group and 117 volunteers in the reduced fat group completed the study. Energy and fat intake from the free access products was lower in the reduced fat group, but no difference in energy and fat intake of other products occurred. Body weight, energy-, fat- and vitamin E intake and percentage of energy derived from fat decreased in the reduced fat group. No other statistical significant intervention effects were observed. Blood lipid concentrations, factor VII activity and plasminogen-inhibitor-activator-1 level were reduced after consumption of reduced fat products., Conclusions: When subjects without intention to lose weight limit fat intake by switching from ad libitum consumption of full fat products to reduced fat products body weight gain is prevented, and fat and energy intake are reduced. Such a switch may have beneficial effects on biochemical cardiovascular risk factors. We concluded that reduced fat products will help in a population strategy aimed at preventing overweight and obesity, they will also be effective in maintaining a lower body weight after slimming. Ad libitum consumption of reduced fat products will be ineffective for those individuals that want to reduce body weight because they are currently overweight or obese.

Objective: Assessment of the effect of six months consumption of reduced fat or full fat products on energy intake and body weight, as a function of dietary restraint., Design: A small realistic supermarket in the University departments provided full fat commercial products and their reduced fat alternatives. Volunteers visited the supermarket once a week. Half of them were required to take the reduced fat products, the other half the full fat products. They bought additional products in normal shops., Subjects: Two matched groups (age, genders, body mass index (BMI)), one dietary restrained and one dietary unrestrained, were derived from the total group of 220 healthy men and women. This resulted in four groups differing in dietary restraint and in belonging to the full fat or reduced fat group., Measurements: Energy intake, macronutrient composition of food intake, energy density and weight of food ingested were measured before the run-in period and at 2-4 weeks, three and six months after the start of the study, by controlled food intake diaries., Results: Percentage energy from fat, and energy density changed significantly, according to the reduced or full fat diet, in all subjects. Energy intake and body weight remained constant in the dietary unrestrained on a reduced fat diet and in the dietary restrained on a full fat diet. Energy intake increased significantly, with a trend of body weight increase in the dietary unrestrained on a full fat diet. Body weight decreased significantly, with a trend of decreased energy intake, in the dietary restrained on a reduced fat diet., Conclusion: A reduced fat diet, in combination with unrestrained eating behaviour which resulted in energy intake compensation, contributed to weight maintenance. Weight reduction was the consequence of a reduced fat diet in combination with restrained, non-compensatory eating behaviour. A full fat diet combined with unrestrained eating behaviour led to increased energy intake. Restrained eating behaviour with a full fat diet prevented an increase in energy intake and body weight. Thus dietary restraint compensated for an increase in energy density, whereas dietary unrestraint compensated for a decrease in energy density.

Objectives: In 60 healthy humans, a blend of commonly used edible vegetable fats was compared with the same fat blend after random chemical interesterification, for their effects in terms of nutritional safety on blood lipids, blood enzymes and hemostasis parameters., Design: Both fat blends were supplied double-blind at two energy levels (4 and 8% of energy) in margarine according to a parallel design. At either energy level, the two fat blends were consumed according to a cross-over design for two periods of three weeks, without an intermediate wash-out period., Results: The 30 parameters studied revealed no statistically significant differences between the two fat blends, except for slightly (approximately 10%) lower D-dimers concentrations after consumption of the interesterified fat blend., Conclusions: Increased levels of the fibrin-degradation products D-dimers are positively associated with risk for coronary heart disease. Thus, it was concluded that the inclusion of a chemically interesterified vegetable fat blend in the diet of healthy people does not influence fasting blood lipids, blood enzymes and/or hemostasis parameters in an adverse way, when compared with a non-interesterified fat blend with the same fatty acid composition.

The effect of replacement of fat by nonabsorbable fat on energy intake and on feelings of hunger and satiety was assessed, in normal-weight dietary-restrained (n = 11), dietary-unrestrained (n = 13) and in postobese dietary-restrained women (n = 12), using 2 experimental designs. First, during breakfast and lunch on 2 sequential weekdays, 23 g of dietary fat was replaced by 23 g of a nonabsorbable fat. Second, dietary fat was replaced by a nonabsorbable fat in snacks consumed ad lib during a different week. Fat replacement in meals or in snacks did not result in changes in hunger and satiety ratings throughout the day. Replacement in meals yielded an energy intake reduction of 0.5 MJ/day (not significant) in dietary-unrestrained and in postobese dietary-restrained subjects; this reduction included 44% energy intake compensation. In normal-weight dietary-restrained subjects, energy intake reduction of 0.7 (p < 0.05) MJ/day was observed; this reduction included 22% energy intake compensation. Moreover, fat replacement in meals showed a shift in macronutrient composition from 35-40% energy from fat to 31-32% energy from fat. Replacement in snacks yielded an energy intake reduction of 0.4-0.5 MJ/day (not significant) in normal-weight dietary-restrained subjects and a reduction of 0.6-0.7 (p < 0.05) MJ/day in dietary-unrestrained and in postobese dietary-restrained subjects. In this situation, energy intake from snacks consisted of 48-78% energy from reduced-fat reduced-energy snacks, which implied a replacement of 10-15 g fat by 10-15 g SPE (sucrose polyester) and a shift in macronutrient composition from 35-40 percentage energy from fat to 33-36 percentage energy from fat. These results suggest short-term beneficial effects of fat replacement on energy and fat intake.

Diet-induced thermogenesis was measured during and after a full-fat lunch, an identical but reduced-fat, reduced-energy lunch, and an iso-energetic reduced-fat lunch in 32 normal-weight men and women, age 35-55. Hunger and satiety were scored during and after the lunches, and their relationship to diet-induced thermogenesis was assessed. Diet-induced thermogenesis was relatively higher after the reduced-fat, reduced-energy lunch compared to the full-fat lunch (6.7% vs. 5.2%; p < 0.05). The respiratory quotients were significantly lower after the full-fat lunch than after the 2 reduced-fat lunches (p < 0.05). After the iso-energetic reduced-fat lunch, hunger scores were significantly reduced and satiety scores significantly increased (p < 0.05) until 1800 h. compared to the other 2 lunches. Satiety scores were positively related to the magnitude of diet-induced thermogenesis expressed as an absolute increase in metabolic rate during and after the meal. We conclude that hunger and satiety scores, substrate utilization, and diet-induced thermogenesis showed clear and different short-term responses to diets that differed with respect to the percentage energy from fat and/or the energy content of the meal.

Vitamin E is the major lipid-soluble antioxidant in human subjects and is crucial in protecting polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) against lipid peroxidation. Dietary PUFA have been suggested to inhibit the absorption of vitamin E. The present study in young male rats was designed to investigate the effect of increasing concentrations of dietary linoleic acid on the faecal excretion of vitamin E. The rats were fed on semi-synthetic diets containing two concentrations of fat (59 g/kg diet, 15 energy % (en%) or 131 g/kg, 30 en%) for 3 weeks. Triacylglycerol rich in linoleic acid was added at the expense of triacylglycerol rich in saturated fatty acids to obtain dietary concentrations of 13, 39 or 66 g linoleic acid/kg diet for the high-fat diet (131 g fat/kg) and 12, 24 or 36 g linoleic acid/kg diet for the reduced-fat diet (59 g fat/kg). The results from the present study demonstrate that the faecal excretion of vitamin E was significantly lower in rats fed on diets with high levels of linoleic acid compared with rats fed on lower levels of linoleic acid irrespective of the dietary fat content. The concentration of vitamin E in liver and plasma was significantly lower in animals fed on the highest concentration of linoleic acid compared with those fed on the lowest level. Results from the present study also demonstrate that at the same concentration of linoleic acid, the faecal excretion of vitamin E in rats fed on reduced-fat diets was significantly lower than in rats fed on high-fat diets. Our findings indicate that the apparent absorption of vitamin E is not inhibited by dietary PUFA. Results from the present study also demonstrate that a reduction of dietary fat content from 30 en% to 15 en% does not lower the apparent absorption of vitamin E.

The growing public concern with the adverse effects on health of a high fat intake has led to a proliferation on the market of reduced fat products. However, no consensus exists on the effectivity of reduced fat products to decrease energy intake. The studies that have investigated this topic have included small numbers of subjects, studied under laboratory conditions and over a relatively short period of time. Therefore, we have executed a long-term study in which volunteers had free access to both reduced fat, commercially available products in the laboratory as well as to products obtained from regular shops. We here report the feasibility of such a type of study and the effects of consumption of reduced fat products on blood levels of cholesterol, haemostasis variables, antioxidants and parameters of the immune system. The study was a multicentre parallel comparison trial of six months (so-called MSFAT-study). 241 volunteers received either reduced fat products or full-fat products and the products were clearly labelled as such. Two months before the start of the study, a 1 month adaptation period was executed to optimize the experimental procedures. Food intake was recorded before the start of the adaptation period and 2-4 weeks, 3 months and 6 months after the start of the study. Blood samples were taken before, after 2, 4 and 6 months of the study. In addition, a selection of the reduced fat and full-fat products was sensorically evaluated three times during the study by a subgroup of the volunteers. 220 volunteers completed the study. The reduced fat group consumed on average 46% less fat from the so-called MSFAT-products obtained from the shop at the laboratory than the control group and consumption of these MSFAT-products did not decrease in either of the groups during the time course of the study. The palatability of the reduced fat and full-fat products was similar and as expected, the perceived fattiness of the full-fat products was higher than that of the reduced fat products. No effects were found on blood levels of cholesterol, haemostasis variables, parameters of antioxidant status and immune system characteristics. In conclusion, the experimental manipulation of the fat content of the diet that was achieved and that remained stable throughout the 6 months of the study indicates that this type of set-up is feasible to assess the effects of long-term nutritional intervention in large groups of volunteers under semi-controlled conditions. The regular use of reduced fat products did not positively but also not adversely affect blood cholesterol levels, antioxidant status, haemostasis factors and the body's immune system.

It has been suggested that energy expenditure is higher in subjects consuming reduced-fat, high-carbohydrate diets than in subjects consuming full-fat, low-carbohydrate diets. In a 6-month randomized, controlled trial, seventeen women and twenty men (age 20-35 years; BMI 22-28 kg/m2) had free access either to a range of about forty-five reduced-fat products or the full-fat equivalents. At the end of the 6 months, energy intake, sleeping metabolic rate (SMR), average daily metabolic rate (ADMR), and physical activity (AO) were measured. The intervention resulted in a mean difference of the change of the fat content of the diet of 6% of energy (P < 0.01) between the two groups. SMR. ADMR and AO were virtually the same in both groups. The results suggest that the change in fat content of the diet has no effect on physical activity and energy expenditure. However, subjects with a higher activity level consumed more carbohydrate (ADMR/SMR: r = 0.49, P < 0.01: AO: r = 0.57, P < 0.001).

Objective: Assessment of body composition in relation to the habitual diet and after a six month dietary intervention., Design: After a baseline measurement subjects were randomly assigned to either a group consuming reduced-fat products or a group consuming full-fat products for six months., Subjects: 108 women and 109 men, equally distributed over the age range 19-35 with BMI between 21 and 28, and the age range 36-55 with BMI between 24 and 30., Measurements: Food intake was measured by three day dietary record, body composition by deuterium dilution., Results: At baseline, explained variance of %body fat on age and fat-carbohydrate ratio in the diet together were 17% (P < 0.0001) and 36% (P < 0.0001) for women and men, respectively, and on diet alone 7-8% (P < 0.01) independent of gender. The diet intervention caused on average a change in fat intake and body fat mass in subjects of the reduced-fat group of -5 +/- 29 g/d (P < 0.05) and -0.1 +/- 2.1 kg (ns), respectively, and of +23 +/- 31 g/d (P < 0.0001) and +0.5 +/- 2.3 kg (P < 0.05) in subjects of the full-fat group. The change in the fat content of the diet was positively related to a change in energy intake (fat-carbohydrate ratio: R2 = 0.15, P < 0.0001; g fat: R2 = 0.70, P < 0.0001), the latter explaining 5% of the variation in the change in body fat mass (P < 0.001). Subjects changing the fat content of the diet showed a consequent change in body fat mass only when energy intake changed as well., Conclusion: The fat content of the diet has an effect on body fat as a function of the effect of dietary fat on energy intake.

In previous experiments using the fat substitute sucrose polyester (SPE, or olestra), no compensatory response was observed on day 2 after experimental manipulations, which reduced the percentage of energy from fat to approximately equal to 30% from 40% on day 1. In the present study a more severe manipulation was made; the amount of energy from fat was reduced from 32% to 20% to determine whether such a reduction would provoke any physiologic or behavioral response. Subjects came to the unit for two, 2-d test sessions. Intake on day 1 was fixed: subjects were given meals containing either control fat (11319 kJ, 32% of energy as fat) or SPE (9561 kJ, 20% of energy as fat). On day 2, intake was ad libitum. On day 1 subjects rated themselves as more hungry while consuming the fat-substituted meals than when consuming the control meals and they disclosed greater hunger in the end-of-day questionnaires. The effect of the manipulation was carried over into day 2. By the end of day 2, subjects had compensated for 74% of the energy (fat) deficit caused by the previous day's manipulation. These results differ from those obtained when fat was reduced from 40% to 30% of energy; this more severe reduction reveals that a reduction in fat of this size can lead to a biobehavioral response. Together, these data suggest that people could change their diet to meet dietary guidelines; however, if a more severe reduction is attempted, adherence may be made more difficult by the strength of the compensatory response.

The relationship between dietary fat intake (level and type) and the development of breast cancer in humans is a matter of concern in Western society. A high fat intake is associated with a greater mammary cancer risk in humans and in animal models. Higher intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids in humans shows little or no association with mammary tumor development in epidemiologic surveys. From literature data, it appears that a higher intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic acid) is related to an increase in mammary tumorigenesis in animal studies in which chemical carcinogens like dimethylbenz[a]anthracene are used as tumor initiator. Mostly the latency period of these chemically induced models in rather short. In this study, the Bald/c-MMTV (mouse mammary tumor virus) mouse strain was chosen as an animal model: MMTV leads to tumor initiation, and dietary factors influence tumor promotion over a relatively long latency period. The mice were fed diets with two fat concentrations: a high [36% of energy (en%)] or low (16 en%) fat level; fat was isocalorically replaced by carbohydrates (cornstarch). At both dietary fat levels, linoleic acid was given at four levels: 2, 3, 6, and 10 en%. Linoleic acid-rich fat was isocalorically replaced by oleic acid-rich fat. The diets were consumed ad libitum over a lifetime. Animals were euthanized as soon as mammary tumor diameter was > or = 1 cm or when the animals were in a poor clinical condition. The incidence of mammary tumors at 18 months was significantly higher in one group only: 36 en% fat and 2 en% linoleic acid. This group also showed the shortest mean latency period for mammary tumor development. Mean mammary tumor incidence was higher and mean onset time shorter in the four high-fat groups than in the low-fat groups. No (linear) dose-response relationship between dietary linoleic acid concentration and mammary tumor incidence and latency period was observed. This indicates that a higher dietary linoleic acid intake does not increase the incidence or shorten the latency period of breast cancer in the Balb/c-MMTV mouse strain at two different dietary fat levels.

The short-term satiating effects of croissants with different amounts of fat and sucrose polyester (SPE) followed by three lengths of deprivation were investigated. Sixteen male and 18 female normal-weight subjects each received six different experimental conditions in a two x three factorial design. Energy content was the first factor with two levels: 1.80 MJ and 3.45 MJ. The second factor was the deprivation period after the lunch preload with three levels: 0.25, 2.25, and 4.75 h. Subjects ate ad lib after the deprivation period. The effects of the croissants were determined by motivational ratings and reported food consumption on the study day and the day after the study day. The SPE croissants (1.80 MJ) and the high-fat croissants (3.45 MJ) did not result in different subsequent energy intakes. Differences in energy intake were found between the three deprivation conditions, with the lowest intake with the 4.75-h deprivation condition. This was due to differences in the energy intake during the afternoon. The two energy levels of the preloads had similar effects on the motivational ratings. Higher appetite ratings were found after the 4.75-h compared to the 0.25 h and the 2.25-h deprivation condition.

This study investigated the effect of the physical state and fat content of a preload on feelings of hunger and satiety and subsequent energy intake. Thirty-three normal-weight female subjects each received nine different 550-ml preloads which were served as breakfast. The preloads differed in physical state and fat level. There were three types of physical state (liquid, solid with locust bean gum, and solid with gelatin) combined with three energy levels (0.42, 1.67, and 3.35 MJ). The energy differences were due only to differences in fat content. Subjects were not allowed to eat or drink (except water) for 3.5 h after preload consumption. In this period they rated their feelings of appetite. Subjects recorded their voluntary food intake for the remainder of the study day and the day after the study day. There were no effects of the different amounts of fat or the three different physical states on energy intake during the remainder of the day or the day after. With respect to the appetite ratings, however, it appeared that the solid preloads were more satiating than the liquid preloads and the solid preloads were more satiating with fibre (locust bean gum) than without fibre (gelatin). The high-fat preloads were more satiating than the low-fat preloads.

The independent effects of weight loss and dietary fat modification on serum lipids were investigated in two groups of healthy moderately obese men and women. In one group (sequential group, n = 19), a weight-stable low-fat, low-saturated-fat diet (Low-Sat) was given for 7 weeks (= dietary modification), followed by a 4.2 MJ/day deficit Low-Sat diet for 13 weeks (i.e., weight loss alone). Another group (simultaneous group, n = 22) received a 4.2 MJ/day deficit Low-Sat diet for 13 weeks (i.e., weight loss+dietary fat modification). Each group was subject to an initial weight-stable high-fat, high-saturated fat diet for 3 weeks and a final weight stable Low-Sat diet for 3 weeks. Both groups lost similar amounts of body weight, about 13 kg, and had similar overall changes in total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein (LDL), cholesterol, high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, the HDL/LDL ratio, and triglycerides. Analysis of the separate effects of the Low-Sat diet without energy restriction and of weight loss in the sequential group showed that weight loss per se was responsible for about 50% of the total reduction in total cholesterol, and for about 60% and 70% of the fall in LDL cholesterol and triglycerides, respectively. Fat modification without weight loss reduced HDL cholesterol by 11.1% and the HDL/LDL ratio by 7.7%, while weight loss per se led to increases in HDL cholesterol of 12.5% and in the HDL/LDL ratio of 24.0%. We conclude that the effects of reduction in fat and saturated fat intake and weight loss are additive.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

This study investigated the satiating efficiencies of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates (CHOs). Twenty-nine female, normal-weight subjects each received 10 liquid breakfasts, which varied in energy and macronutrient contents. Besides a zero condition [0.3 MJ (8 kcal)], there were three energy levels [0.42, 1.05, and 1.67 MJ (100, 250, and 400 kcal)] combined with three dominant sources of macronutrients (99% of energy from CHO, 92% of energy from fat, and 77% of energy from protein). After breakfast the subjects were not allowed to eat or drink (except water) for 3.5 h. They then recorded their voluntary food intake for the remainder of the day. Subjects also rated their subjective feelings concerning food intake on five different types of appetite. The results showed that neither energy content nor macronutrient composition of the liquid breakfasts had any effect on energy and macronutrient intake during lunch and the remainder of the day. Ratings of different types of appetite showed an increasing satiating effect with increasing energy content of the breakfasts. Proteins, fats, and CHOs had similar effects on appetite.

Postabsorptive resting metabolic rate (RMR) and diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT) were repeatedly assessed with an indirect calorimetric ventilated hood system in a group of 32 healthy premenopausal obese women, body fat percentage 46.4 +/- 0.9 (mean +/- SEM), age 38.5 +/- 0.9 years. RMR and DIT were also measured in a group of 10 healthy premenopausal non-obese women, body fat percentage 31.3 +/- 1.7, age 37.7 +/- 2.4 years. The obese women were subdivided according to the waist-to-hips girth ratio (WHR) into three groups with a different type of body fat distribution: A gluteal-femoral obese group (n = 10), WHR less than 0.79; an intermediate obese group (n = 10), 0.79 less than WHR less than 0.85; and an abdominal obese group (n = 12), WHR greater than 0.85. No significant differences were observed among the obese groups in age, body weight, body fat mass, and fat-free body mass. Body fat distribution was not associated with differences in DIT, pre- and postprandial respiratory quotients and substrate oxidation rates, but the abdominal obese women had significantly higher RMRs adjusted for age, fat mass, and fat-free body mass (6,075 +/- 200 kJ/d) in comparison with the gluteal-femoral obese women (5,502 +/- 205 kJ/d) and in comparison with obese women with an intermediate body fat distribution (5,517 +/- 193 kJ/d), but not in comparison with a non-obese control group, 6,790 +/- 261 kJ/d. It is concluded that within the total group of obese women, the non-abdominal obese can be characterized by relatively reduced resting metabolic rates in comparison with either the abdominal obese or with non-obese women.