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Microtubules are formed by α- and β-tubulin heterodimers nucleated with γ-tubulin. Tubulins are conserved eukaryotic proteins. Previously, it was shown that microtubules are involved in diatom silica frustule morphogenesis. Diatom frustules are varied, and their morphology is species-specific. Despite the attractiveness of the problem of elucidating the molecular mechanisms of genetically programmed morphogenesis, the structure and evolution of diatom tubulins have not been studied previously. Based on available genomic and transcriptome data, we analyzed the phylogeny of the predicted amino acid sequences of diatom α-, β- and γ-tubulins and identified five groups for α-tubulins, six for β-tubulins and four for γ-tubulins. We identified characteristic amino acids of each of these groups and also analyzed possible posttranslational modification sites of diatom tubulins. According to our results, we assumed what changes occurred in the diatom tubulin structures during their evolution. We also identified which tubulin groups are inherent in large diatom taxa. The similarity between the evolution of diatom tubulins and the evolution of diatoms suggests that molecular changes in α-, β- and γ-tubulins could be one of the factors in the formation of a high morphological diversity of diatoms.

The end-binding proteins are a family of microtubule-associated proteins; this family belongs to plus-end-tracking proteins (+TIPs) that regulate microtubule growth and stabilisation. Although the genes encoding EB proteins are found in all eukaryotic genomes, most studies of them have centred on one or another taxonomic group, without a broad comparative analysis. Here, we present a first phylogenetic analysis and a comparative analysis of domain structures of diatom EB proteins in comparison with other phyla of Chromista, red and green algae, as well as model organisms A. thaliana and H. sapiens. Phylogenetically, diatom EB proteins are separated into six clades, generally corresponding to the phylogeny of their respective organisms. The domain structure of this family is highly variable, but the CH and EBH domains responsible for binding tubulin and other MAPs are mostly conserved. Homologous modelling of the F. cylindrus EB protein shows that conserved motifs of the CH domain are positioned on the protein surface, which is necessary for their functioning. We hypothesise that high variance of the diatom C-terminal domain is caused by previously unknown interactions with a CAP-GLY motif of dynactin subunit p150. Our findings contribute to wider possibilities for further investigations of the cytoskeleton in diatoms., (Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Diatoms stand out among other microalgae due to the high diversity of species-specific silica frustules whose components (valves and girdle bands) are formed within the cell in special organelles called silica deposition vesicles (SDVs). Research on cell structure and morphogenesis of frustule elements in diatoms of different taxonomic groups has been carried out since the 1950s but is still relevant today. Here, cytological features and valve morphogenesis in the freshwater raphid pennate diatom Encyonema ventricosum (Agardh) Grunow have been studied using light and transmission electron microscopy of cleaned frustules and ultrathin sections of cells, and scanning electron and atomic force microscopy of the frustule surface. Data have been obtained on chloroplast structure: the pyrenoid is spherical, penetrated by a lamella (a stack of two thylakoids); the girdle lamella consists of several short lamellae. The basic stages of frustule morphogenesis characteristic of raphid pennate diatoms have been traced, with the presence of cytoskeletal elements near SDVs being observed throughout this process. Degradation of the plasmalemma and silicalemma is shown to take place when the newly formed valve is released into the space between sister cells. The role of vesicular transport and exocytosis in the gliding of pennate diatoms is discussed.

Chitin synthases are widespread among eukaryotes and known to have a complex evolutionary history in some of the groups. We have reconstructed the chitin synthase phylogeny using the most taxonomically comprehensive dataset currently available and have shown the presence of independently formed paralogous groups in oomycetes, ciliates, fungi, and all diatoms except raphid pennates. There were also two cases of horizontal gene transfer (HGT): transfer from fungus to early diatoms gave rise to diatom paralogous group, while transfer from raphid pennate diatom to Acantamoeba ancestor is, to our knowledge, restricted to a single gene in amoeba. Early evolution of chitin synthases is heavily obscured by paralogy, and further sequencing effort is necessary., (© The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

The important role of the cytoskeleton in the morphogenesis of siliceous frustule components, which are synthesized within the diatom cells, has been revealed due to experiments with microtubule inhibitors. It has been shown that colchicine entering the diatom cell inhibits polymerization of tubulin, the main protein of microtubules, thereby disrupting the normal processes of biogenic silica deposition and daughter valve morphogenesis. In this study, experiments with a synchronized culture of the pennate diatom Synedra acus have been performed to determine the timing and duration of the formation of various valve components and analyze the effect of colchicine at a subtoxic concentration on the structure of daughter valves at different stages of their morphogenesis. Electron microscopic analysis has revealed several types of micro- and nanoscale anomalies in daughter valve morphology, with their frequency varying depending on the time of colchicine treatment. Laser scanning microscopy of preparations vitally stained with Tubulin Tracker Green has shown that polymerized tubulin at early stages of valve morphogenesis is localized along the periphery of the developing valve. This is evidence for an important role of microtubules in the horizontal growth of the valve at the stage when its general structural pattern is established, including its shape and arrangement of basic micro- and nanostructures. Treatment with a microtubule inhibitor at a certain stage of valve morphogenesis makes it possible to obtain new forms with a specific structure of siliceous components that hold promise for use in nanotechnologies., (Copyright © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Insight into the role of bacteria in degradation of diatoms is important for understanding the factors and components of silica turnover in aquatic ecosystems. Using microscopic methods, it has been shown that the degree of diatom preservation and the numbers of diatom-associated bacteria in the surface layer of bottom sediments decrease with depth; in the near-bottom water layer, the majority of bacteria are associated with diatom cells, being located either on the cell surface or within the cell. The structure of microbial community in the near-bottom water layer has been characterized by pyrosequencing of the 16S rRNA gene, which has revealed 149 208 unique sequences. According to the results of metagenomic analysis, the community is dominated by representatives of Proteobacteria (41.9%), Actinobacteria (16%); then follow Acidobacteria (6.9%), Cyanobacteria (5%), Bacteroidetes (4.7%), Firmicutes (2.8%), Nitrospira (1.6%), and Verrucomicrobia (1%); other phylotypes account for less than 1% each. For 18.7% of the sequences, taxonomic identification has been possible only to the Bacteria domain level. Many bacteria identified to the genus level have close relatives occurring in other aquatic ecosystems and soils. The metagenome of the bacterial community from the near-bottom water layer also contains 16S rRNA gene sequences found in previously isolated bacterial strains possessing hydrolytic enzyme activity. These data show that potential degraders of diatoms occur among the vast variety of microorganisms in the near-bottom water of Lake Baikal.

The first two mitochondrial genomes of marine diatoms were previously reported for the centric Thalassiosira pseudonana and the raphid pennate Phaeodactylum tricornutum. As part of a genomic project, we sequenced the complete mitochondrial genome of the freshwater araphid pennate diatom Synedra acus. This 46,657 bp mtDNA encodes 2 rRNAs, 24 tRNAs, and 33 proteins. The mtDNA of S. acus contains three group II introns, two inserted into the cox1 gene and containing ORFs, and one inserted into the rnl gene and lacking an ORF. The compact gene organization contrasts with the presence of a 4.9-kb-long intergenic region, which contains repeat sequences. Comparison of the three sequenced mtDNAs showed that these three genomes carry similar gene pools, but the positions of some genes are rearranged. Phylogenetic analysis performed with a fragment of the cox1 gene of diatoms and other heterokonts produced a tree that is similar to that derived from 18S RNA genes. The introns of mtDNA in the diatoms seem to be polyphyletic. This study demonstrates that pyrosequencing is an efficient method for complete sequencing of mitochondrial genomes from diatoms, and may soon give valuable information about the molecular phylogeny of this outstanding group of unicellular organisms.

Many pigmented heterokonts are able to synthesize elements of their cell walls (the frustules) of dense biogenic silica. These include diatom algae, which occupy a significant place in the biosphere. The siliceous frustules of diatoms have species-specific patterns of surface structures between 10 and a few hundred nanometers. The present review considers possible mechanisms of uptake of silicic acid from the aquatic environment, its transport across the plasmalemma, and intracellular transport and deposition of silica inside the specialized Silica Deposition Vesicle (SDV) where elements of the new frustule are formed. It is proposed that a complex of silicic acid with positively charged proteins silaffins and polypropylamines remains a homogeneous solution during the intracellular transport to SDV, where biogenic silica precipitates. The high density of the deposited biogenic silica may be due to removal of water from the SDV by aquaporins followed by syneresis--a process during which pore water is expelled from the network of the contracting gel. The pattern of aquaporins in the silicalemma, the membrane embracing the SDV, can determine the pattern of species-specific siliceous nanostructures.

Diatom sediment records of large lakes can be used to decipher the history of ancient phytoplankton. The upper layer of the sediment is an important area of remineralization of the sedimenting phytoplankton biomass. It hosts a bacterial community different from those of both the water column and deeper sediment layers. In this work, we analyzed the structure and diversity of the communities of Bacteria and Archaea in the surface sediment core containing valves of diatoms, the major producers in Lake Baikal. Pyrosequencing of the bacterial V3-V4 region of the 16 S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and archaeal V1-V3 16 S rRNA gene regions yielded 29,168 and 36,997 reads, respectively. In total, we have identified 33 bacterial phyla; uncultured Actinobacteria were the most abundant in the upper layers, while lower sediment was dominated by Firmicutes and Alphaproteobacteria. The composition of the archaeal community changed with depth, but was generally dominated by Crenarchaeota from the classes Marine Group I and Miscellaneous Crenarchaeotic Group, as well as Euryarchaeota from the class Thermoplasmata. These dominant bacterial and archaeal taxa are presumed to participate in the destruction of buried organic matter, which eventually leads to degradation of the diatom valves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diatoms stand out among other microalgae due to the high diversity of species-specific silica frustules whose components (valves and girdle bands) are formed within the cell in special organelles called silica deposition vesicles (SDVs). Research on cell structure and morphogenesis of frustule elements in diatoms of different taxonomic groups has been carried out since the 1950s but is still relevant today. Here, cytological features and valve morphogenesis in the freshwater raphid pennate diatom Encyonema ventricosum (Agardh) Grunow have been studied using light and transmission electron microscopy of cleaned frustules and ultrathin sections of cells, and scanning electron and atomic force microscopy of the frustule surface. Data have been obtained on chloroplast structure: the pyrenoid is spherical, penetrated by a lamella (a stack of two thylakoids); the girdle lamella consists of several short lamellae. The basic stages of frustule morphogenesis characteristic of raphid pennate diatoms have been traced, with the presence of cytoskeletal elements near SDVs being observed throughout this process. Degradation of the plasmalemma and silicalemma is shown to take place when the newly formed valve is released into the space between sister cells. The role of vesicular transport and exocytosis in the gliding of pennate diatoms is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Numerical analysis of silica diatom frustule vibration was carried out by FEA. • Correlations derived for natural frequencies depending on morphology and mechanical properties. • Comparative modal analysis performed for centric (Coscinodiscus acus) and pennate (Synedra acus) diatoms. Numerical simulations were carried out using the Finite Element Method (FEM) to determine the frequency characteristics of mechanical vibration of diatom silica frustules under the conditions and at frequencies that are not readily accessible to experimental measurement. The results revealed the influence of the frustule morphology on the natural frequency spectra. The effect of frustule density, stiffness, dimensions, pore size, and wall thickness on the eigenfrequencies and the corresponding modal shapes were studied in detail. Diatom frustules have natural frequencies in the range between several MHz and tens of MHz that make them a promising candidate for future MEMS applications. Eigenfrequencies depend linearly on the speed of sound in the frustule wall and decrease parabolically with the diameter and the pore size to diameter ratio. Dimensional analysis allowed obtaining functional correlations that encapsulate the various dependencies in compact analytical form. The satisfactory nature of our calculations and correlations derived from them is confirmed through an agreement with the analytical solutions from the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]