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These invitational papers submitted by ETS staff members to the Select Education Subcommittee discuss various aspects of educational change and improvement, planning and evaluation. Papers include: "Open Education: Changing Schools for Children," (Edward A. Chittenden); "Planning for New Students to Higher Education in the 70's," (K. Patricia Cross); "The Desegregation/Integration Dilemma in Higher Education: Implications for Research from Minority Student Experiences," (Junius A. Davis); "Statewide Assessment: Its Future and Potential for Educational Reform" (Henry S. Dyer, Robert J. Solomon); "Mass Higher Education and the Economic Benefits of a College Degree," (Rodney T. Hartnett); "Learning to Learn in Infancy: The Development of Competence Motivation," (Michael Lewis);"Teaching in the Knowledge Society," (Frederick J. McDonald); "Credit by Examination and the External Degree," (Robert J. Solomon, John R. Valley); and "Meeting the Measurement Needs of Education," (William W. Turnbull). Most of the papers include bibliographical references. (CK)

The World Association for Infant Mental Health (WAIMH) decided to compose a position paper on infants' rights in wartime, as there is still a general lack of attention paid to the impact of war-related traumas on infants' development and psychological health. Though there are numerous areas of violent conflicts around the globe, there have been few published studies that relate specifically to infants. Consequently, humanitarian aid programs tend to overlook infants' psychological needs and to pay more attention to those of older children. This position paper first reviews the studies identified through a literature search, about the impact of war-related traumas during pregnancy and postnatal periods, then describes the existing recommendations that have been added to the Children Rights Convention and their implications for infant mental health clinicians.

Background and aims Children with autism spectrum condition often have specific difficulties with narrative comprehension, a skill which has a strong association with both concurrent and longitudinal reading comprehension. A better understanding of narrative comprehension skills in autism spectrum condition has the potential to provide insight into potential later reading comprehension difficulties and inform early targeted intervention. In the current study, the main objective was to investigate how differences in the medium of story presentation (paper-book vs. e-book) and differences in story narration (adult narration vs. in-app narration) would influence narrative comprehension in general, and between groups (autism spectrum condition and a receptive language-matched control group). We were also interested in how task engagement (visual attention and communication) differed between group and conditions and whether task engagement was related to narrative comprehension. Method Forty-two children with autism spectrum condition and 42 typically developing children were read a story either via a paper-book or an e-book with interactive and multimedia features. The e-book was either narrated by the experimenter (adult narrated iPad condition) or narrated by an in-app voiceover (e-book narrated iPad condition). Children’s behaviour during storybook reading was video recorded and coded for engagement (visual attention and communication). They then completed two measures of narrative comprehension: multiple-choice questions (measuring recall of literal information) and a picture ordering task (measuring global story structure). Results Contrary to predictions, we did not find any significant group or condition differences on either measure of narrative comprehension, and both groups demonstrated a similar level of narrative comprehension across the three conditions. We found differences in engagement between conditions for both groups, with greater visual attention in the e-book conditions compared to the paper-book condition. However, visual attention only significantly correlated with narrative comprehension for the typically developing group. Conclusion Overall, this study suggests that children with autism spectrum condition are just as able as language-matched peers to comprehend a narrative from storybooks. Presenting a story on an iPad e-book compared to a paper-book does not influence narrative comprehension, nor does adult narration of the story compared to in-app narration. However, on-task engagement is linked to narrative comprehension in typically developing children. Implications: Taken together, our findings suggest that e-books may be more successful than paper-based mediums at encouraging visual attention towards the story, but no better at supporting narrative comprehension and eliciting communication.

Paper folding is a common activity in East Asian kindergartens, but its potential value to early spatial skills have not been empirically explored. This study aims to investigate whether and how paper folding skills can predict spatial ability (SA) in the early years. Altogether 101 preschoolers (Ngirl = 45, Mage = 4.54, SD = 0.75) were randomly sampled from two Hong Kong kindergartens and invited to complete the map-use and the paper folding tasks. The paper folding task taps two levels of children’s paper folding skills: Basic Folding Skill (BFS) and Advanced Folding Skill (AFS). The parents reported the demographic information and their involvement in spatial activities at home. The results indicated the following: (1) there was a significant age-related increase in the paper folding performance; (2) child age could significantly predict both BFS (β = 0.551, p < 0.001) and AFS (β = 0.627, p < 0.001), while parental involvement could only predict BFS (β = 0.246, p < 0.001); (3) after controlling for confounders, paper folding skills could significantly predict SA as measured by the map-use task; (4) BFS was found to mediate the relationship between parental involvement and SA. The educational implications of these findings are also discussed.

This is a multi-method, short-term longitudinal study of the role of early adversity in the development of social-psychological adjustment during the transition to “lockdown” and home-based preschool related to COVID-19 that occurred in Spring 2020. As part of the larger FRIENDS project, data were collected from 74 children during preschool. We will use multiple methods (direct academic assessments, salivary cortisol, caregiver and teacher reports) to assess early predictors of school readiness in the larger project and well-being in the present study. Understanding these processes during this “natural experiment” is critical to informing content and timing of preventive interventions.

We examine how symbols—specifically variables versus numbers—impact students’ problem-solving strategies, and use of these properties, within an online algebra notation system where students can dynamically transform and simplify expressions. Using log data within the system, we quantitatively and qualitatively examine how symbols and students’ mathematical knowledge influence their strategies and process in problem-solving.

There have been ongoing debates as to how, or even whether, we should clinically classify gender diversity in children through clinical classification manuals. So-called 'depathologizing' is argued as being vital to address the stigma that these children are somehow disordered or sick. Yet one argument in favour of continued clinical classification for transgender and gender non-conforming children is that it better facilitates access to specialist psychological support. I argue that whilst continued clinical classification offers a seemingly pragmatic solution to ensuring access, it does in fact obscure our understanding of the individual needs of these children. In this paper I address fundamental issues that aim to better our understanding of need and thus why a child may benefit from specialist support. I do so by critiquing a paper I nearly wrote, which argued for the ongoing continued classification of gender incongruence in children. Ultimately, I argue that specialist psychological support and care should be driven by the needs of the individual child, as determined by the child and those involved with their care. By bettering our understanding as to why specialist psychological support may be beneficial for some, we move past the focus of such specialist support being provided because of the child's gender diversity. Methodologically the paper may be unusual, in comparison to traditional normative counter-argumentative bioethical position papers, but by presenting an argument for depathologization of gender diversity of children in this way there is also an alternative insight into the methods of bioethics.

This initial study used an equivalent-groups design to evaluate differences in story comprehension scores between children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and their neurotypical (NT) peers using paper and iPad® storybooks. Fifteen children with ASD of ages 4–6 and 15 NT peers matched for receptive vocabulary age and gender met inclusion criteria. Across two individualized testing sessions, participants answered language abstraction questions about three formats of Pete the Cat stories (paper, iPad adult read, and iPad with the read-to-me feature activated) during shared storybook reading. When examining the entire group of participants, all children performed better with either type of iPad storybook compared to the paper book. The current study indicates storybooks on the iPad function in similar ways for NT children and children with ASD. Further, this research shows promise for using the iPad with young children during shared storybook reading. Directions for future research and implications for special education personnel are provided.

The advocacy of task-based language teaching (TBLT) has met with resistance. The critiques of TBLT and the misconceptions that underlie them have already been addressed in Ellis (2009) and Long (2016). The purpose of this article is to move forward by examining a number of real problems that TBLT faces – such as how a ‘task’ should be defined, the nature and timing of the ‘focus-on-form’ required, how to determine task complexity and sequence tasks, the role of explicit instruction, the timing of focus on form and the teacher training needed to ensure effective uptake of TBLT – and to also consider what solutions are possible. Disagreements exist regarding the relative merits of task-based and task-supported language teaching. I will propose that a hybrid/modular syllabus that allows for a balance between an object-oriented and a tool-oriented view of language teaching offers the most promising way forward.

Approximately 30% of school-aged individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are nonverbal (that is, they have little or no spontaneous spoken language). Most reading tests require verbalisation, which may under-estimate reading ability in this group. To determine decoding abilities of nonverbal children with ASD (with an age range of 72 to 229 months), a novel digital form of reading assessment, comparable to the widely used New Salford Reading Test, was created. Three groups were tested: verbal ASD (n = 33); nonverbal ASD (n = 24); and verbal non-ASD with a Statement of special educational needs (n = 24). Reading ages were compared for all three groups using the paper-based version of the test, and a digital format that was not reliant on participants' ability to verbalise. The reading scores of nonverbal students with ASD were much lower than the scores of verbal students with ASD when tested with the paper version of the scale, but this difference was eradicated when the digitised version was employed. These results suggest that the use of the nonverbal digital test may offer a good assessment of the reading abilities of nonverbal children with ASD.

Sociogenomics is an emerging field that employs genomics to address the evolution and underlying mechanisms regulating social living. Studies on highly social (often called eusocial) insects have contributed to advances in sociogenomics. Eusocial insects exhibit extreme cooperation characterized by a division of labor with reproductive queen and non-reproductive worker castes. Eusociality has evolved multiple times within the insect order Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps), and my work represents a major leap forward in the development of genomic resources for wasps, with a focus on the model genus Polistes. It has been proposed that there are conserved genetic mechanisms underlying the evolution of eusociality ("genetic toolkit hypothesis"), but this hypothesis has yet to be tested using comparative studies across all three major social lineages. I investigated genetic mechanisms underpinning caste development across three lineages (honey bees, fire ants, and paper wasps) using comparative transcriptomics, and I found greater evidence for a relatively "loose genetic toolkit" of shared molecular pathways and biological functions, rather than specific genes. To provide further insights into how castes evolve, there is also a need for mechanistic studies of caste determination in primitively eusocial insects like Polistes, which have morphologically similar behavioral castes. Therefore, I tested nourishment as an environmental factor driving developmental plasticity of paper wasp caste and observed that nourishment manipulation biased gene expression toward worker-like expression patterns. Additionally, new genetically and experimentally tractable model systems for sociogenomics are vital for studying complex social behavioral traits. Polistes are poised to be an excellent model for one such trait facial recognition since a species of wasps (P. fuscatus) is the only insect known to possess this ability. By comparing brain gene expression during staged social interactions for two paper wasp species with (P. fuscatus) and without (P. metricus) facial recognition, I found that differences in calcium signaling and dominance-related genes may be important for individual memory recall. Memory recall is not necessarily limited to facial

Aim. Presentation of the assumptions of the new definition of physical activity and their consequences for the interpretation of the essence and the measurement of its category and components. Material and methods. Unobtrusive research, content analysis, narrative review Results. Based on the review of the positions of American methodologists of behavioral epidemiology on the definition of physical activity attention was drawn to its new approach, alternative to that created in the 1980s.The detailed analysis of the model of the structure of physical activity, built on the assumptions of the new definition, allowed to indicate its innovativeness and consequences for: interpretation of its essence (as behaviour) and for the quantitative or qualitative measurement of the components of the structures of the new model: behaviour, human movement, exercise, physical fitness, fitness in terms of health (health related fitness, H-RF). Conclusions. 1. The new concept of the definition of physical activity deserves wider popularization outside the American continent because it is the result of the experience and broad scientific discussion of outstanding representatives of behavioral epidemiology, the leading American scientific trend, creating methodological foundations for research on obesity and other civilization diseases, health training and physical education. 2. Regardless of the existing barriers (most often mental) in the adoption of new concepts by supporters of the concept of physical activity, in the sense of movement or physical fitness, and despite the well-established positions of traditionalists regarding changes in the methods of promoting physical activity and participation in the broadly understood physical culture, the logical nature of the theoretical foundations and pedagogical pragmatism, supported by research results, suggests that in the matter of adopting a new concept of human movement and methods of studying motor behavior, one should strive to challenge the regularities found by Dutch researchers (Kemper and Van Mechelen) with regard to the acceptance of American physical fitness tests in the past: In Europe, the development of fitness tests followed the Americans, with a delay of 20 years. [1].

Stuttering demands a multidimensional interpretation, as the consequences of the symptoms have been shown in recent years, with psycho-social and psychological effects shown with people living with a stutter far beyond the surface elements. This work explores the degree to which students may stutter with disabilities among school children and adults who stutter (AWS). The effect of stuttering on a person and on the members of the family (siblings, parents and partners) is discussed in this article. Such issues cover mental and social problems, self consciousness, stuttering responses, interpersonal difficulties in everyday situations, and the overall quality of life. The effect of stuttering on the person who shares stuttering with others is illustrated. The explanation of stuttering in children and adolescents who have severe adverse effects from dealing with a stutter mentioned is explored during their existence. The impact of the stuttering condition on the parents and sisters of children who stutter is also discussed with interesting studies about the sense of connection and confidence between young people and their parents. The family obligations and expectations for parents and siblings are stressed. The focus is also on dealing with a person who stutters from their life partner's viewpoint. Presumed quality of life is discussed through unforeseen variations between the adult's quality of life and the expectations of the spouse of the individual. Eventually, there is the potential for a new appreciation and engagement strategy for people who stutter.

Summary Introduction The term variations of sex development subsumes a large number of congenital conditions including chromosomal mosaics and variations of chromosomal, gonadal, and phenotypic sex. A situation of this nature may cause severe distress to both, parents and affected persons. One of the reasons for this is the binary form of gender classification in the society. In the past, because of a fear of possible stigmatization and an inability to cope with complex situations, it has been medical policy and practice for newborns to undergo early, mostly ‘feminizing’ elective surgery with the aim of achieving an outer genital appearance that is unambiguously male or female. Protests by advocacy groups for the most part as well as the results of outcome studies have shown that the development of affected persons may be very different to what has been expected and often does not result in the intended clear female or male gender identity as had been intended. It, therefore, seemed a matter of urgency to implement this new awareness as well as the ethical and personal human rights perspectives in the recommendations for the medical and psychosocial management of diverse sex development (DSD) in the future. Study design In 2012, an interdisciplinary group of German academics engaged in the field of DSD decided to work on a consensus paper for this topic. It involved the participation of all faculties and non-scientific groups dealing with DSD, in particular advocacy and service-user groups. In a structured consensus, process recommendations were developed based on scientific literature as well as personal experiences of clinicians and affected individuals. Results Finally, 37 recommendations were agreed on. The strength of consensus is reflected in the degree of agreement as expressed in percentages. Conclusion The introduction of the consensus paper reflects on the emerging paradigm shift and the necessity for a more open view of gender within society. The paper is intended to aid the performance of appropriate diagnostics in DSD-affected newborns and especially to help parents and affected persons cope with the biological and social consequences of DSD. With regard to medical or surgical therapy, it gives information about the most recent treatment trends.

Animals frequently compete over limited resources such as food, territories or mating opportunities. Contest behaviour varies based on factors such as the value of the contested resources and the agonistic ability of rivals. Much work on animal contests has examined aggression, but vigilance, or a state of heightened alertness directed towards specific stimuli, may also be an important component of competition in many species. In this study, we measure the relationships among social vigilance, aggression, agonistic ability and resource value during staged contests over nest ownership in Polistes dominula nest-founding wasps. Our results show that both social vigilance and aggression are involved in mediating social risk during contests. Nest owner vigilance towards a rival increased with the time of season, a measure of nest value. Owner vigilance was also positively associated with aggression such that more aggressive owners were more vigilant. During contests, aggression of owners and rivals was influenced by different factors. Owner aggression was positively associated with nest size, another measure of nest value, while rival aggression was unrelated to nest size. Instead, rival aggression was associated with facial patterns that function as signals of agonistic ability; rivals were less aggressive to owners that signalled high agonistic ability than they were to owners that signalled low agonistic ability. The distinct predictors of contest behaviour between owners and rivals indicate that competitive role has a surprisingly strong influence on cues used to inform contest behaviour. Differences may occur because owners and rivals have different information and/or motivation. These results also suggest that social vigilance and aggression may be complementary behaviours that animals use to mitigate social threat.