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The impacts of air transport on the economy arise both directly, via activity in the aviation sector; and indirectly, via increased spending and wider economic benefits associated with improved access to resources, markets, technology and economic mass. Economic activity, in turn, supports and generates demand for air transport. Despite its potential importance, the reciprocal nature of the causal relationship between air transport and economic performance has remained somewhat understudied. This paper provides a synthesis review of the channels the aviation sector interacts with regional economy. The review focuses on quantitative studies that contribute to the state-of-the-art understandings of the causality. We find that the reciprocal causal relationship is more likely to prevail in less developed economies. For more developed economies, only one direction of the causality is recognised, which runs from air transport to economic growth. Especially substantial is the effect of airline enplanement on service-related employment. The reverse direction of the relationship is, however, not as significant as believed in a causal sense within the developed world. Therefore, cautions need to be taken when applying income elasticities (such as the elasticity of air passenger demand with respect to GDP) in air travel demand forecasting, which implicitly assumes that economic growth causally leads to air traffic increment. Based on the fundamental links between air transport and economic growth, some typical imperfections and inefficiencies in aviation markets are discussed and promising avenues for future research are proposed.

Nowadays one of peculiarities of the liberalized airline market is a huge divergence of ticket prices for the same flights. Mostly it reflects the companies' being unable to easily change the volumes of production or/and store them. The development and use of the yield management models (seat allocation models) have centered on airlines offering a variety of different types of fares for travel on the same flight. The goal of this dissertation is to construct a number of economic models to explain the price dispersion on the airline market from the different points of view. In Part 3, I create a direct price mode! which explains how different product and consumer characteristics influence the price level. It is shown how different attributes like the moment of ticket reservation, ticket class, weekday of the departure and number of coupons define the price and how it corresponds to the consumer characteristics (gender, income, age, etc.). Part 4 is devoted to the differences of the price level from the competition point of view. In a strategic game where firms compete against each other the set of rationalizable strategies for each player entails ail the best responses to the others' decisions. This chapter proposes an empirical test of the existence of the unique Nash equilibrium in a Cournot oligopoly. In Part 5 I treat an airline passenger market as a market with the product differentiation and apply a multinomial logit model to calculate price elasticities. The logit model (with a special focus on the consumers heterogeneity) estimates how the different product characteristics influence the market shares.; Une des particularités du marché des compagnies aériennes est la grande divergence des prix des billets pour les mêmes vol. Cela reflète principalement l'incapacité des entreprises à modifier facilement les volumes de production et/ou à les stocker. Le développement et l'utilisation des modèles de "yield management" (modèles d'attribution des sièges) ont été centrés sur les compagnies aériennes proposant différents types de tarifs pour un même vol. L'objectif de cette thèse est de construire un certain nombre de modèles économiques pour expliquer la dispersion des prix sur le marché du transport aérien à partir de différents points de vue. Dans le chapitre 3, je crée un modèle de prix direct qui explique comment différentes caractéristiques du produit et du consommateur influencent le niveau de prix. Le chapitre 4 est consacré aux différences de niveau de prix du point de vue de la concurrence. Dans un jeu stratégique où les entreprises se font concurrence, ! 'ensemble de stratégies rationalisables pour chaque joueur implique toutes les meilleures réponses aux décisions des autres. Ce chapitre propose un test empirique de l'existence de l'équilibre de Nash unique dans un oligopole de Cournot. Dans le chapitre 5, je traite le marché des passagers aériens comme un marché différenciant les produits et applique un modèle logit multinomial pour calculer les élasticités-prix. Le modèle logit (mettant particulièrement l'accent sur l'hétérogénéité des consommateurs) estime de quelle manière les différentes caractéristiques du produit influencent les parts de marché.

During the past decade, Georgia’s pursuit of economic reforms led to impressive economic growth, capital inflow, and investments. It helped improve the business environment and infrastructure, strengthened public finances, and liberalized trade. Georgia achieved most of the human development targets of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). This progress did not result, however, in improved environmental governance or better management of natural resources. Nowadays, environmental policies are receiving increasing attention from Georgian policy and decision makers, recognizing that sustainable development is about a profound change of policies that drive systemic transformation of production, consumption, and behavioral patterns. The list of the country’s environmental challenges is long. Current policies and instruments lack the rigor to effectively reduce pressures on natural assets and protect public health from poor environmental quality. Georgia does not have a comprehensive assessment of the cost of inaction to environmental degradation linking it to economic growth, poverty, and shared prosperity. This is a central issue on which the Country Environmental Analysis (CEA) is focused. The main objective of the CEA is to assist the government, civil society, and development partners of Georgia in identifying and analyzing critical environmental constraints to sustainable growth and shared prosperity. Georgia’s Country Partnership Strategy for 2014-2017 points to lagging public policies on protecting the environment and natural resources, against impressive economic growth. It further highlights several areas needing attention, such as air and water quality, waste management, land and landscape management, and nature resource use and protection.

Tesis (Mag. Sc.) -- CATIE, Turrialba (Costa Rica), 2008 El impacto en el sector lácteo hondureño es poco conocido, tanto en tipo y magnitud de impactos. En tal sentido, se realizó un estudio en el 2006 para estimar la demanda reciente de productos lácteos y aplicar un modelo de equilibrio espacial (MEE) para el mercado de la leche pasteurizada de Honduras que optimiza el bienestar social. El análisis de la demanda estimó el consumo y gasto a cuatro niveles de agregación (nacional, regional, por hogar y per cápita); de igual forma se estimó las funciones nacionales de consumo (o curvas Engel) con sus respectivas elasticidades (ingreso y precio) para 13 productos lácteos. El MEE empírico ya validado, se utilizó para simular cambios en precios, en costos de transporte y en productividad. El consumo de leche y lácteos en el 2004, representó un gasto nacional de 5991 millones de lempiras, siendo la leche natural, leche pasteurizada, queso fresco, mantequilla rala, y el queso seco, los productos más consumidos. La alta apertura comercial existente y la resiliencia cultural de los lácteos hondureños limitarán impactos negativos del DR-CAFTA en el mercado nacional. Sin embargo, los productos lácteos más substituibles (leches fluida pasteurizada) podrían ser afectados. La mejora en productividad y la reducción de costos de transporte aumentan el bienestar tanto de productores y consumidores. Por otro lado, la importación de leche a precios menores aumenta el bienestar del consumidor, pero no del productor. The United States of America, Dominican Republic and Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA), will amend trade flows between these countries, affecting demand and supply of agricultural products, including dairy products. The DR-CAFTA impact on the Honduran dairy sector is little known, both in type and magnitude of impacts. In 2006, a study was conducted to estimate the recent demand for dairy products and implement a spatial equilibrium model (SEM) to the pasteurized milk market in Honduras that optimizes social welfare. The analysis of demand and consumption expenditure was estimated at four levels of aggregation (national, regional, per household and per capita; likewise was estimated national consumption functions (or Engel curves) with their respective elasticities (income and price) for 13 dairy products. The empirical SEM already validated, was used to simulate changes in prices, transport costs and productivity. Consumption of milk and dairy products in 2004, represented an expense of Lps 5.9 billions (US$ 315.3 millions). The actual trade condition and the cultural resilience of Hondurans for their dairy products limited negative impacts of DR-CAFTA in the domestic market. However, dairy products more substitutable (pasteurized milk fluid) could be affected. The improvement in productivity and reducing transportation costs increase the welfare of both producers and consumers. On the other hand, imports of milk at lower prices increases consumer welfare, but not the producer’s.

Changing consumer and market demands is an important driver behind the challenges and opportunities that are facing the agriculture and agri-food sector in Canada and that will influence the sector's profitability and competitiveness in the future. It is therefore important to understand developments in the consumer demand for agriculture and agri-food products. The report provides updated demand elasticities for fourteen food groups in Canada. The estimates are useful for conducting analysis of the changing structure of the agriculture and agri-food sector and can help quantify the impacts that changes in economic variables and policies that impact those economic variables might have.

Price elasticities and flexibilities for frozen dessert products were estimated from weekly scanner data, with emphasis on functional form selection, system misspecification testing, and endogeneity testing. Reciprocals of elasticities and elasticity matrix inversion were invalid means of obtaining flexibility estimates, leaving direct estimation as the only viable, albeit resource-intensive, approach.

Implied 2-year to 10-year price responses from the May 1984 IIASA world agriculture model are described. Net trade quantity changes with respect to percent world price changes are presented, as well as elasticities of supply, demand, net trade, and world-to-domestic price transmission. The regions include the EEC, Japan, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, Canada, Thailand, India, Egypt, Nigeria, and the world less the United States. Commodities shown are wheat, coarse grains, protein feed, ruminant meat, dairy, and other animal products. Implied second-year elasticities of net export demand facing the United States for wheat, coarse grains, and protein feed are -1.5, -1.7, and -1.5, respectively. Selected elasticities are compared with those from the 1978 GOL (grains, oilseeds, and livestock) model. Differences, particularly concerning price transmission and protein feed, are noted.