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Background: Previous research reveals relations between theory of mind (ToM) and cognitive outcomes, but mostly among typically developing children., Aim: To study these relations in children with developmental difficulties, this longitudinal study investigated the cognitive consequences of ToM in deaf or hard-of-hearing (DHH) children., Methods and Procedures: One hundred and thirty-four (X = 9.2 years) participants were assessed in three waves, i.e., one wave every ten months. The participants completed the ToM scale, language and literacy skills (LLS) tests, the academic self-concept in language (ASC-L) questionnaire, and the sensitivity to criticism measure., Outcomes and Results: The results revealed that high levels of children's ToM ability predicted higher levels of LLS 20 months later. Mediators of this association were sensitivity to criticism and ASC-L. Controlling for LLS at T1, ASC-L at T2 mediated the relations between ToM and LLS at T3. Moreover, sensitivity to criticism predicted ASC-L, and sensitivity to criticism and ASC-L mediated the relation between ToM and LLS at T3. That is, children who were sensitive to criticism and held positive views of their academic self were also better skilled in ToM and in LLS., Conclusions and Implications: Our results can help improve the education of DHH students., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The present study investigates the development of advanced theory of mind (AToM) among typically developing (TD) children, children with mild intellectual disability (MID), and deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) children. The 2-year longitudinal study comprised three waves and included a large sample of children from Poland in middle childhood aged around 7.5-9.5 years (N = 779; M = 7.7, SD = 0.92 at wave 1). The analysis of children's understanding of second-order false belief and the Faux-Pas Recognition Test showed that TD children outperformed children with MID and DHH children on both measures. At 7.5 years, almost 60% of the TD children correctly solved the second-order false belief task; correct performance at 7.5 years in children with MID and DHH children was 27 and 38% respectively. Two years later, correct performance rose to 80% (TD children), 45% (children with MID), and 63% (DHH children). Despite these differences, the speed of AToM development did not differ across the groups. The development of faux-pas recognition followed a non-linear pattern, with TD children showing no further significant development after mid-elementary school. Our findings show differences in AToM development between TD children, children with MID, and DHH children, and they suggest that children's development of AToM may follow different developmental pathways, depending on the aspect of AToM under study., (© 2021 The British Psychological Society.)

Are there categorically distinct parenting behaviours that differ between families with children with and without disabilities (mild intellectual disability [MID], deaf or hard of hearing children [DHH])? A study involving 719 children and their families assessed mothers' responses to the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire and children's language skills at 8 and 9 years. A latent class analysis revealed three discrete classes of parenting behaviours: (1) authoritative; (2) mildly authoritative; and (3) inconsistent or neglecting. The latter class comprised around 10% of the mothers, across all groups. The behaviours that were associated with this class, however, differed across groups: In families with children without disability, it was characterized by inconsistent (authoritarian and permissive) behaviours; in families with children with disabilities, it is best described as neglecting. A high level of education was related to better parenting behaviours, and in children with DHH, neglecting parenting was associated with poor language development.

Assessing theory of mind (ToM) with reliable and valid measures is important, as ToM plays a significant role in children’s social and cognitive functioning. With this in mind, a thorough analysis of the Theory of Mind scale and the Faux Pas Recognition Test was conducted. Over 750 school-age (M age = 7.7) children with disabilities (mild intellectual disability, hearing impairment) and without disabilities took part in our study. The psychometric properties of measures in these groups of children were checked, using confirmatory item factor analysis, reliability, and validity analyses. Thanks to groups’ invariance it was possible to compare mean results of children in the groups. Both measures showed well-fitted models with acceptable goodness of fit as well as scalar and strict invariance. An IRT analysis showed significant differences in the difficulty of the tasks in all groups, but the same order of passing tasks in comparison to other studies, conducted in Western countries, has been observed. Our results showed that the tasks were the easiest for children without disabilities, and most difficult for children with mild intellectual disability. We obtained significant and positive correlations between ToM and social skills and language abilities. The findings are discussed in relation to results from other studies in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]