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In this study, we employ pooled data from four rounds of Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS) to examine whether, and to what extent, does the incidence of early marriage shape the married women’s perspectives on gender preference associated with reproduction. We employ a number of econometric techniques (Probit, OLS, Cox Hazard Model, IV Probit and treatment effects) and a large set of model specifications, and find significant evidence supporting the role of early marriage in perpetuating disproportionate preference for boys. Women who married before turning 18 not only state a greater desire for boys but are also less likely to stop reproduction as long as they do not have a boy. Early-age marriage is associated with 7.7–12.5 per cent higher incidence of fertility discontinuation among women without a son. This son-preferring behaviour is stronger at higher birth order and also reflects in differential spacing patterns. Women’s education appears to be the strongest channel through which these effects are mediated. The divergence between early- and late-marrying women appears to have sharpened over time. The findings of this study underscore the role played by early marriage in altering the gender-specific attitudes prevalent in the society, and highlight existing gender inequality traps.

In this study, we use comprehensive French consumer data from the Nielsen ScanTrack retailer panel to analyse the progression of purchasing trends of French households during the coronavirus outbreak. Our results are threefold: First, we observe three temporal phases, namely the normal (pre-Covid-19) period, the anticipation period, and the lockdown period. During the three weeks of anticipation (24 February – 15 March), sales of basic and cleaning products increased by 17%. The first week of the preventive lockdown saw panic buying with sales jumping by 30%, followed by a more subdued growth during the subsequent weeks of the lockdown. We found these time trends to be similar to those observed in Italy and Spain. Second, sales of the hypermarkets fell by 6% during the lockdown, while those of supermarkets and convenience stores rose by 13% and 28% respectively. Online sales through drive stores (80%) and home delivery (93%) showed the highest growth. Covid-19 appears to have accentuated the joint evolution of two major phenomena: strong development of E-commerce, and the desire of the households to visit small shops close to their homes. Third, in terms of product categories, we observe an increase in basic, easy-to-store food products, an increasing consumption of fresh, local & organic products, a significant increase in the purchase of basic hygiene products, and a decline in the purchase of cosmetics. In the latter case, Covid-19 seems to have accentuated a fundamental trend in household purchases in France: "eat local".

An aspect of the Covid-19 pandemic that merits attention is its effects on marriage and childbirth. Although the direct fertility effects of people getting the virus may be minor, the impact of delayed marriages due to the first preventive lockdown, such as that imposed in Pakistan from March 14 to May 8 2020, and the closure of marriage halls that lasted till September 14 may be non-negligible. These demographic consequences are of particular import to developing countries such as Pakistan where birth rates remain high, marriage is nearly universal, and almost all child-bearing takes place within marriage. Based on historic marriage patterns, we estimate that the delay in nuptiality during the first wave of coronavirus outbreak may affect about half of the marriages that were to take place during the year. In Pakistan, childbearing begins soon after marriage, and about 37% of Pakistani married women give birth to their first child within twelve months of marriage. A sizeable number out of these around 400,000 annual births that occur within twelve months of the marriage may consequently be delayed. Postponement of marriages due to the accompanying difficult economic situation and employment precariousness should accentuate this fertility effect. The net fertility impact of the Covid-19 outbreak would ultimately depend not only on the delay in marriages but also on the reproductive behavior of existing couples. Un aspect de la pandémie de Covid-19 qui mérite une attention particulière concerne ses effets sur le mariage et la naissance des enfants. Les conséquences démographiques sont particulièrement importantes pour les pays en développement tels que le Pakistan. Dans ce pays, le taux de natalité est élevé, le mariage est presque universel et la procréation se fait exclusivement dans le cadre du mariage. Bien que les effets directs du virus sur la fertilité des personnes infectées puissent être moins importants, l'impact des mariages retardés en raison des mesures de confinement tecomme celles qui avaient cours au Pakistan du 14 mars au 8 mai 2020, et de la fermeture des salles de mariage qui a duré jusqu'au 14 septembre peut être sérieux. Sur la base des modèles de mariage historiques, nous estimons que le retard de la nuptialité pendant la première vague de la pandémie de coronavirus pourrait affecter environ la moitié des mariages qui devaient avoir lieu pendant l'année. Au Pakistan, la réproduction commence peu après le mariage et environ 37 % des femmes mariées pakistanaises donnent naissance à leur premier enfant dans les douze mois suivant leur mariage. Un nombre non négligeable des 400 000 naissances annuelles qui surviennent dans les douze mois suivant le mariage pourrait donc être retardé. Le report des mariages en raison d'une situation économique difficile et de la précarité de l'emploi devrait accentuer cet effet sur la fécondité. En fin, l'impact net de l'épidémie de Covid-19 sur la fécondité dépendrait en fin de compte non seulement du report des mariages, mais aussi du comportement des couples existants en matière de reproduction.

Using data from two representative Demographic and Health Surveys, we examine the change in son preference over the past three decades and its effects on Pakistani women's fertility. We analyse a number of indicators and employ different empirical methods to come up with strong and persistent evidence for both the revealed and stated preference for sons. This disproportionate preference for boys is visible in increasing desired sex ratio and worsening sex ratio at last birth. Reliance over differential birth-stopping has significantly increased over time as couples are more likely to stop childbearing once the desired number of boys is achieved.

Child marriage is still widespread in countries across the Indian Subcontinent. The practice has important consequences for the health and well-being of the woman and the child. In this study, we examine the incidence of child marriage in Pakistan and the changes that have taken place over time in the profile of the women who marry before turning 18. We use data from all the four rounds of the representative Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS), namely 1990 − 91, 2006 − 07, 2012 − 13 and 2017 − 18. With the help of these data, we observe the evolution of the individual and household characteristics of early-marrying women over a span of three decades. We find that the practice of child marriage has become much less generalized over the past three decades. In 2017−18, 39% of married women of child-bearing age (i.e. those between the age of 15 and 49) had got married before the age of 18. Though still high, it is nonetheless lower than the 54% incidence found in 1990 − 91. The decrease is particularly significant among women from wealthy and urban households. The incidence of child marriage is increasingly concentrated among women who are older and less educated and those belonging to poor, rural households. Elimination of the harmful practice of child marriage is crucial for achieving the fifth Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) which deals with gender equality. The findings of the study highlight the close links present between child marriage, poverty and urbanization.

Remittances, the part of the migrant's income sent back to their family living in the origin country, have become a critical stepping-stone to economic development for many developing nations. A key factor that causes migrants to use informal channels is the high cost of transferring funds through formal channels. Reducing the cost of remitting is one of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals; it is also an important policy objective as it helps to bring remittances into the formal economy, enhances financial inclusion and increases the net income of receiving households. This study examines the question of whether and to what extent the reduction in the cost of remittances increases the flow of remittances to developing countries, and whether larger amounts are remitted when the cost per transaction decreases (the so-called scale effect). It uses bilateral data on remittance flows and exploits a novel dataset covering transaction costs for 30 sending and 75 receiving countries for the period 2011-2017. A gravity model of remittance flows is estimated using panel data and instrumental variable techniques to account for potential endogeneity. We find that transaction cost is a significant predictor of the volume of formal remittances. A 1 percent decrease in the cost of remitting USD 200 leads to about a 1.6 percent increase in remittances. This association remains unchanged regardless of the models used and techniques employed. In addition to this strong impact of transfer fees, migrant stock, exchange rate stability in the recipient country and financial development in both the recipient and sending countries are also found to be important factors driving remittances. The findings suggest that policies designed to increase remittances need to focus on decreasing the cost of remitting through formal channels.

We analyze the effects of the pervasive phenomenon of son preference on Pakistani women’s participation in household decision-making. We find that women with at least one son take more household decisions than other women, but only in routine, unimportant matters. Even with sons, female empowerment remains limited and decision- or context-specific.

Son preference is common in many Asian countries. Though a growing body of literature examines the drivers and socioeconomic impacts of phenomenon in case of China and India, work on other Asian countries is scarce. This study uses nationally representative survey of over 13 thousand households from Pakistan (PDHS 2012-13) to analyze the effects of observed preference for sons on women's participation in intra-household decision-making. Four key intra-household decisions are considered: decisions regarding healthcare, family visits, large household purchases and spending husband's income. These correspond to four categories of household decisions, namely healthcare, social, consumption and financial. Probit and Ordered Probit are employed as the main estimation techniques and other determinants of household decision-making are controlled for. Besides, a number of matching routines are employed to account for the possibility of potential selection bias. We find that women with at least one son have more say in household decisions. Bearing at least one son is associated with 5%, 7% and 5% higher say in decisions involving healthcare, social and consumption matters respectively. Women's role in financial affairs, however, does not differ significantly from women with no sons. Female participation in decision-making grows significantly with the number of sons but only up to the third parity. These results are particularly visible among younger, wealthier and educated women, and those who got married earlier. The findings suggest a limited improvement in women's bargaining power at home resulting from the birth of one or more sons. This in part explains higher desire for sons expressed by women compared to men in household surveys. La préférence pour les garçons est courante en asie. Alors que beaucoup d'études s'intéressent aux facteurs et aux impacts socioéconomiques de ce phénomène en Chine et en Inde, les travaux sur les autres pays asiatiques sont plus rares. A partir d'une enquête nationale réalisée sur plus de 13 000 ménages pakistanais (PDHS 2012-13), cette étude analyse les effets de la préférence pour les garçons sur la participation des femmes aux décisions prises dans le ménage. Quatre décisions importantes du ménage seront prises en compte : celles relatives aux soins de santé, aux visites de famille, sur les achats du ménage et sur l'affectation des dépenses des revenus du mari. Celles-ci représentent quatre catégories des décisions au sain du ménage : les décisions lié à la santé, aux liens sociaux, à la consommation et aux affaires financières. Les méthodes Probit et Probit Ordinal sont utilisées pour les estimations de base et d'autres déterminants liés aux décisions prises dans le ménage seront pris en compte. De plus, méthodes d'appariment sont utilisées pour tenir compte d'éventuels biais de sélection. Les résultats indiquent que le fait d'avoir au moins un fils a une influence sur les décisions du ménage. Le fait d'avoir au moins un fils est associé à une hausse de 5%, 7% et 5% sur les décisions impliquant respectivement les soins de santé, les relations sociales et la consommation. L'implication des femmes dans les finances du ménage ne varie pourtant pas significativement avec celle des femmes sans fils. La participation des femmes dans les prises de décision augmente avec le nombre de fils mais seulement jusqu'à 3 garçons. Ce résultat entraine une amélioration relative sur le pouvoir de négociation des femmes au sein du ménage suite à la naissance d'un ou plusieurs garçons. Cela explique en partie le désir plus fort des femmes d'avoir des fils par rapport aux hommes, selon les enquêtes ménages.

This study examines the differential response of various international financial flows to the post 9/11 episode of terrorism in the context of a South Asian country. Using monthly data for the period from January 2003 to December 2014, we analyze the impact of terrorism in Pakistan on the inflows of foreign direct investment (FDI), portfolio investments, and migrant remittances. We find that FDI decreases substantially as a result of terrorist activity, whereas portfolio investments show little change. In contrast, migrant remittances show a significant increase. These differences are also evident in financial flows from major source regions and top sending countries. The results are robust to the use of alternative definitions and indicators of terrorism as well as the inclusion of various macroeconomic variables. These findings indicate that foreign private capital flees an economy suffering from terrorism whereas migrant remittances are the only financial flows that increase during difficult times.

This paper studies the impact of human capital on the adoption and diffusion of Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) in the Pakistani firms using the World Bank Enterprise Survey 2002-07. The paper considers various indicators of human capital and measures of ICT adoption and diffusion. On-the-job training, manager's level of qualification and production workers' level of education are found to positively determine the use of emails, website and other means of communication in a firm. The results are robust to the inclusion of geographical, sectoral and structural control variables. Firm size, sales and workers' compensation are also positively associated with the use of ICT. The findings show the importance of accumulation and development of human capital in the productivity growth in the era of skill-biased technical change. A concerted national effort for the enhancement of the workforce's computing skills is therefore a must if a developing economy such as Pakistan is to improve its competitiveness.