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Background: Genetic alterations are well characterized as contributors to the pathogenesis of cancers. Epigenetic abnormalities can lead to perturbations of the expression of genes in cancer cells without structural defects. Deregulation of proteins of the transcription machinery may result in perturbations of target genes. Mediator, a multiprotein component of the transcription machinery facilitates the function of RNA polymerase II, which transcribes most human genes. A part of the mediator with kinase activity, called the Mediator kinase module shows genetic alterations in a sub-set of colorectal cancers., Methods: Data from publicly available genomic series of colorectal cancer patients were examined to determine alterations of Mediator kinase module component genes, including MED12, MED12L, MED13, MED13L, CDK8, CDK19, and CCNC. The prevalence of alterations in genomically defined colorectal cancer sub-sets was also interrogated. The effect of Mediator kinase module member gene expression on colorectal cancer relapse-free survival was investigated., Results: Mutations in genes of the Mediator kinase module were present in a small percentage of colorectal cancers, ranging between 2 to 10% for MED12 and MED13 and alternative units MED12L and MED13L and below 2% for kinases CDK8 and CDK19 and cyclin C. Amplifications of the CDK8 gene were observed in 3% to 5% of colorectal cancers. The highest prevalence of mutations was observed in MSI cancers and the equivalent CMS1 group, with other genomic groups showing much lower frequency. An association of higher expression of MED12 with inferior relapse-free survival was observed. In contrast, higher expression of cyclin C was associated with improved survival. Colorectal cancer cell lines with CDK8 amplifications displayed sensitivity to several small molecule inhibitors of the KRAS/PI3K pathway but not to BET inhibitors., Conclusion: The Mediator kinase module is deregulated in a sub-set of colorectal cancers with differences observed in genomically defined groups. These variations may result in differences in sensitivity to targeted therapies and may have to be taken into consideration as such therapies are developed., (© 2024. The Author(s) under exclusive licence to Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences.)

The resistance to cisplatin-based chemotherapy is a common cause of poor prognosis in cancer patients. Cisplatin stimulation causes cyclin C translocating to mitochondria, and in turn induces mitochondrial fission. However, little is known about the role of cyclin C in mitochondrial dysfunction in cancer cells challenged with cisplatin. In the present commentary, we bring to the attention of readers the recent report by Jiang et al which revealed the importance of ubiquitylation and translocation of cyclin C in gastric cancer cells in response to cisplatin stimulation for mitochondrial stability. This finding provides new insights into exploring the novel mechanisms of chemoresistance and developing the new chemotherapy synergistic agents in the era of precision oncology., (© 2022 The Authors. Clinical and Translational Medicine published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Shanghai Institute of Clinical Bioinformatics.)

The full-length cDNA of cyclin C of the giant tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon (PmCyC) was isolated by RACE-PCR. It was 1443 bp in length containing an open reading frame (ORF) of 804 bp and 267 deduced amino acids. Tissue distribution analysis indicated that PmCyC was more abundantly expressed in ovaries and testes than other tissues of female and male juveniles (P < 0.05). A pair of primers was designed, and an amplification product of 403 bp containing an intron of 123 bp was obtained. Polymorphism of amplified PmCyC gene segments of the 5th (3-month-old G5, N = 30) and 7th (5-month-old G7, N = 18) generations of domesticated juveniles was analyzed. Four conserved SNPs (T>C 134 , T>C 188 , G>A 379 , and T>C 382 ) were found within the examined sequences. A TaqMan genotyping assay was developed for detection of a T>C 134 SNP. Association analysis indicated that this SNP displayed significant association with body weight (P < 4.2e-10) and total length (P < 2e-09) of the examined G7 P. monodon (N = 419) with an allele substitution effect of 5.02 ± 0.78 g and 1.41 ± 0.19 cm, respectively. Juveniles with C/C 134 (22.80 ± 2.51 g and 12.97 ± 0.53 cm, N = 19) and T/C 134 (20.41 ± 0.93 g and 12.77 ± 0.21 cm, N = 129) genotypes exhibited a significantly greater average body weight and total length than those with a T/T 134 genotype (14.72 ± 0.53 g and 11.37 ± 0.13 cm, N = 271) (P < 0.05).

Intrinsic apoptosis requires mitochondrial outer membrane disruption triggered by recruitment, activation, and oligomerization of the Bcl-2 homology protein Bax. Following oxidative stress, we demonstrated that the transcriptional regulator cyclin C is released into the cytosol where it directs mitochondrial fragmentation and efficient apoptotic induction. This study reveals that cytoplasmic cyclin C is required for both normal Bax activation and its efficient mitochondrial localization. This activity appears direct as cyclin C co-immunoprecipitates with active Bax in stressed cells and binds recombinant Bax in vitro. In addition, stable cyclin C-Bax association requires the fission complex. Pharmacologically stimulating cyclin C nuclear release is sufficient for Bax association and their mitochondrial localization in the absence of any stress signals. However, these cells do not undergo cell death as Bax fails to oligomerize. These data support a model that cyclin C association defines an initial step in Bax mitochondrial recruitment and provides a physical connection between the fission and apoptotic factors. This strategy allows the cell to discriminate stress-induced fission able to recruit Bax from other types of mitochondrial divisions., (© 2019 The Authors.)

CDK8 and CDK19 Mediator kinases are transcriptional co-regulators implicated in several types of cancer. Small-molecule CDK8/19 inhibitors have recently entered or are entering clinical trials, starting with breast cancer and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). To identify other cancers where these novel drugs may provide benefit, we queried genomic and transcriptomic databases for potential impact of CDK8, CDK19, or their binding partner CCNC. sgRNA analysis of a panel of tumor cell lines showed that most tumor types represented in the panel, except for some central nervous system tumors, were not dependent on these genes. In contrast, analysis of clinical samples for alterations in these genes revealed a high frequency of gene amplification in two highly aggressive subtypes of prostate cancer and in some cancers of the GI tract, breast, bladder, and sarcomas. Analysis of survival correlations identified a group of cancers where CDK8 expression correlated with shorter survival (notably breast, prostate, cervical cancers, and esophageal adenocarcinoma). In some cancers (AML, melanoma, ovarian, and others), such correlations were limited to samples with a below-median tumor mutation burden. These results suggest that Mediator kinases are especially important in cancers that are driven primarily by transcriptional rather than mutational changes and warrant an investigation of their role in additional cancer types.

The transcriptional changes that occur in response to oxidative stress help direct the decision to maintain cell viability or enter a cell death pathway. Cyclin C-Cdk8 is a conserved kinase that associates with the RNA polymerase II Mediator complex that stimulates or represses transcription depending on the locus. In response to oxidative stress, cyclin C, but not Cdk8, displays partial translocation into the cytoplasm. These findings open the possibility that cyclin C relocalization is a regulatory mechanism governing oxidative stress-induced transcriptional changes. In the present study, the cyclin C-dependent transcriptome was determined and compared to transcriptional changes occurring in oxidatively stressed Mus musculus embryonic fibroblasts. We observed a similar number (∼2000) of genes up or downregulated in oxidatively stressed cells. Induced genes include cellular repair/survival factors while repressed loci were generally involved in proliferation or differentiation. Depleting cyclin C in unstressed cells produced an approximately equal number of genes (∼2400) that were repressed by, or whose transcription required, cyclin C. Consistent with the possibility that cyclin C nuclear release contributes to transcriptional remodeling in response to oxidative stress, we found that 37% cyclin C-dependent genes were downregulated following stress. Moreover, 20% of cyclin C- repressed genes were induced in response to stress. These findings are consistent with a model that cyclin C relocalization to the cytoplasm, and corresponding inactivation of Cdk8, represents a regulatory mechanism to repress and stimulate transcription of stress-responsive genes., (Copyright © 2019 Stieg et al.)

Abnormal activity of cyclin-dependent kinase 8 (CDK8) along with its partner protein cyclin C (CycC) is a common feature of many diseases including colorectal cancer. Using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, this study determined the dynamics of the CDK8-CycC system and we obtained detailed breakdowns of binding energy contributions for four type-I and five type-II CDK8 inhibitors. We revealed system motions and conformational changes that will affect ligand binding, confirmed the essentialness of CycC for inclusion in future computational studies, and provide guidance in development of CDK8 binders. We employed unbiased all-atom MD simulations for 500 ns on twelve CDK8-CycC systems, including apoproteins and protein-ligand complexes, then performed principal component analysis (PCA) and measured the RMSF of key regions to identify protein dynamics. Binding pocket volume analysis identified conformational changes that accompany ligand binding. Next, H-bond analysis, residue-wise interaction calculations, and MM/PBSA were performed to characterize protein-ligand interactions and find the binding energy. We discovered that CycC is vital for maintaining a proper conformation of CDK8 to facilitate ligand binding and that the system exhibits motion that should be carefully considered in future computational work. Surprisingly, we found that motion of the activation loop did not affect ligand binding. Type-I and type-II ligand binding is driven by van der Waals interactions, but electrostatic energy and entropic penalties affect type-II binding as well. Binding of both ligand types affects protein flexibility. Based on this we provide suggestions for development of tighter-binding CDK8 inhibitors and offer insight that can aid future computational studies.

Brown adipose tissue is important for maintaining energy homeostasis and adaptive thermogenesis in rodents and humans. As disorders arising from dysregulated energy metabolism, such as obesity and metabolic diseases, have increased, so has interest in the molecular mechanisms of adipocyte biology. Using a functional screen, we identified cyclin C (CycC), a conserved subunit of the Mediator complex, as a novel regulator for brown adipocyte formation. siRNA-mediated CycC knockdown (KD) in brown preadipocytes impaired the early transcriptional program of differentiation, and genetic KO of CycC completely blocked the differentiation process. RNA sequencing analyses of CycC-KD revealed a critical role of CycC in activating genes co-regulated by peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α (C/EBPα). Overexpression of PPARγ2 or addition of the PPARγ ligand rosiglitazone rescued the defects in CycC-KO brown preadipocytes and efficiently activated the PPARγ-responsive promoters in both WT and CycC-KO cells, suggesting that CycC is not essential for PPARγ transcriptional activity. In contrast, CycC-KO significantly reduced C/EBPα-dependent gene expression. Unlike for PPARγ, overexpression of C/EBPα could not induce C/EBPα target gene expression in CycC-KO cells or rescue the CycC-KO defects in brown adipogenesis, suggesting that CycC is essential for C/EBPα-mediated gene activation. CycC physically interacted with C/EBPα, and this interaction was required for C/EBPα transactivation domain activity. Consistent with the role of C/EBPα in white adipogenesis, CycC-KD also inhibited differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells into white adipocytes. Together, these data indicate that CycC activates adipogenesis in part by stimulating the transcriptional activity of C/EBPα., (© 2017 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.)

Activation of pancreatic β-cell proliferation has been proposed as an approach to replace reduced functional β-cell mass in diabetes. Quiescent fibroblasts exit from G0 (quiescence) to G1 through pRb phosphorylation mediated by cyclin C/cdk3 complexes. Overexpression of cyclin D1, D2, D3, or cyclin E induces pancreatic β-cell proliferation. We hypothesized that cyclin C overexpression would induce β-cell proliferation through G0 exit, thus being a potential therapeutic target to recover functional β-cell mass. We used isolated rat and human islets transduced with adenovirus expressing cyclin C. We measured multiple markers of proliferation: [(3)H]thymidine incorporation, BrdU incorporation and staining, and Ki67 staining. Furthermore, we detected β-cell death by TUNEL, β-cell differentiation by RT-PCR, and β-cell function by glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. Interestingly, we have found that cyclin C increases rat and human β-cell proliferation. This augmented proliferation did not induce β-cell death, dedifferentiation, or dysfunction in rat or human islets. Our results indicate that cyclin C is a potential target for inducing β-cell regeneration., (Copyright © 2015 the American Physiological Society.)

Selective inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinase 8 and cyclin C (CDK8/CycC) has been suggested as a promising strategy for decreasing mitogenic signals in cancer cells with reduced toxicity toward normal cells. We developed a novel virtual screening protocol for drug development and applied it to the discovery of new CDK8/CycC type II ligands, which is likely to achieve long residence time and specificity. We first analyzed the binding thermodynamics of 11 published pyrazolourea ligands using molecular dynamics simulations and a free-energy calculation method, VM2, and extracted the key binding information to assist virtual screening. The urea moiety was found to be the critical structural contributor of the reference ligands. Starting with the urea moiety, we conducted substructure-based searches with our newly developed superposition and single-point energy evaluation method, followed by free-energy calculations, and singled out three purchasable compounds for bioassay testing. The ranking from the experimental results is completely consistent with the predicted rankings. A potent drug-like compound was found to have a Kd value of 42.5 nm, which is similar to those of the most potent reference ligands; this provided a good starting point for further improvement. This study shows that our novel virtual screening protocol is an accurate and efficient tool for drug development.

Background: Cyclin C (CCNC) was reported to take part in regulating mitochondria‐derived oxidative stress under cisplatin stimulation. However, its effect in gastric cancer is unknown. This study aimed to investigate the role of cyclin C and its ubiquitylation in regulating cisplatin resistance in gastric cancer. Methods: The interaction between HECT domain and ankyrin repeat‐containing E3 ubiquitin‐protein ligase 1 (HACE1) and cyclin C was investigated by GST pull‐down assay, co‐immunoprecipitation and ubiquitylation assay. Mitochondria‐derived oxidative stress was studied by MitoSOX Red assay, seahorse assay and mitochondrial membrane potential measurement. Cyclin C‐associated cisplatin resistance was studied in vivo via xenograft. Results: HACE1 catalysed the ubiquitylation of cyclin C by adding Lys11‐linked ubiquitin chains when cyclin C translocates to cytoplasm induced by cisplatin treatment. The ubiquitin‐modified cyclin C then anchor at mitochondira, which induced mitochondrial fission and ROS synthesis. Depleting CCNC or mutation on the ubiquitylation sites decreased mitochondrial ROS production and reduced cell apoptosis under cisplatin treatment. Xenograft study showed that disrupting cyclin C ubiquitylation by HACE1 conferred impairing cell apoptosis response upon cisplatin administration. Conclusions: Cyclin C is a newly identified substrate of HACE1 E3 ligase. HACE1‐mediated ubiquitylation of cyclin C sheds light on a better understanding of cisplatin‐associated resistance in gastric cancer patients. Ubiquitylation of cyclin C by HACE1 regulates cisplatin‐associated sensitivity in gastric cancer. With cisplatin‐induced nuclear–mitochondrial translocation of cyclin C, its ubiquitylation by HACE1 increased mitochondrial fission and mitochondrial‐derived oxidative stress, leading to cell apoptosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The resistance to cisplatin‐based chemotherapy is a common cause of poor prognosis in cancer patients. Cisplatin stimulation causes cyclin C translocating to mitochondria, and in turn induces mitochondrial fission. However, little is known about the role of cyclin C in mitochondrial dysfunction in cancer cells challenged with cisplatin. In the present commentary, we bring to the attention of readers the recent report by Jiang et al which revealed the importance of ubiquitylation and translocation of cyclin C in gastric cancer cells in response to cisplatin stimulation for mitochondrial stability. This finding provides new insights into exploring the novel mechanisms of chemoresistance and developing the new chemotherapy synergistic agents in the era of precision oncology.

Cells facing adverse environmental cues respond by inducing signal transduction pathways resulting in transcriptional reprograming. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, nutrient deprivation stimulates stress response gene (SRG) transcription critical for entry into either quiescence or gametogenesis depending on the cell type. The induction of a subset of SRGs require nuclear translocation of the conserved serine-threonine kinase Rim15. However, Rim15 is also present in unstressed nuclei suggesting that additional activities are required to constrain its activity in the absence of stress. Here we show that Rim15 is directly phosphorylated by cyclin C-Cdk8, the conserved kinase module of the Mediator complex. Several results indicate that Cdk8-dependent phosphorylation prevents Rim15 activation in unstressed cells. First, Cdk8 does not control Rim15 subcellular localization and rim15∆ is epistatic to cdk8∆ with respect to SRG transcription and the execution of starvation programs required for viability. Next, Cdk8 phosphorylates a residue in the conserved PAS domain in vitro. This modification appears important as introducing a phosphomimetic at Cdk8 target residues reduces Rim15 activity. Moreover, the Rim15 phosphomimetic only compromises cell viability in stresses that induce cyclin C destruction as well as entrance into meiosis. Taken together, these findings suggest a model in which Cdk8 phosphorylation contributes to Rim15 repression whilst it cycles through the nucleus. Cyclin C destruction in response to stress inactivates Cdk8 which in turn stimulates Rim15 to maximize SRG transcription and cell survival.

Abstract Background Cyclin C (CCNC) was reported to take part in regulating mitochondria‐derived oxidative stress under cisplatin stimulation. However, its effect in gastric cancer is unknown. This study aimed to investigate the role of cyclin C and its ubiquitylation in regulating cisplatin resistance in gastric cancer. Methods The interaction between HECT domain and ankyrin repeat‐containing E3 ubiquitin‐protein ligase 1 (HACE1) and cyclin C was investigated by GST pull‐down assay, co‐immunoprecipitation and ubiquitylation assay. Mitochondria‐derived oxidative stress was studied by MitoSOX Red assay, seahorse assay and mitochondrial membrane potential measurement. Cyclin C‐associated cisplatin resistance was studied in vivo via xenograft. Results HACE1 catalysed the ubiquitylation of cyclin C by adding Lys11‐linked ubiquitin chains when cyclin C translocates to cytoplasm induced by cisplatin treatment. The ubiquitin‐modified cyclin C then anchor at mitochondira, which induced mitochondrial fission and ROS synthesis. Depleting CCNC or mutation on the ubiquitylation sites decreased mitochondrial ROS production and reduced cell apoptosis under cisplatin treatment. Xenograft study showed that disrupting cyclin C ubiquitylation by HACE1 conferred impairing cell apoptosis response upon cisplatin administration. Conclusions Cyclin C is a newly identified substrate of HACE1 E3 ligase. HACE1‐mediated ubiquitylation of cyclin C sheds light on a better understanding of cisplatin‐associated resistance in gastric cancer patients. Ubiquitylation of cyclin C by HACE1 regulates cisplatin‐associated sensitivity in gastric cancer. With cisplatin‐induced nuclear–mitochondrial translocation of cyclin C, its ubiquitylation by HACE1 increased mitochondrial fission and mitochondrial‐derived oxidative stress, leading to cell apoptosis.

The transcriptional changes that occur in response to oxidative stress help direct the decision to maintain cell viability or enter a cell death pathway. Cyclin C-Cdk8 is a conserved kinase that associates with the RNA polymerase II Mediator complex that stimulates or represses transcription depending on the locus. In response to oxidative stress, cyclin C, but not Cdk8, displays partial translocation into the cytoplasm. These findings open the possibility that cyclin C relocalization is a regulatory mechanism governing oxidative stress-induced transcriptional changes. In the present study, the cyclin C-dependent transcriptome was determined and compared to transcriptional changes occurring in oxidatively stressed Mus musculus embryonic fibroblasts. We observed a similar number (∼2000) of genes up or downregulated in oxidatively stressed cells. Induced genes include cellular repair/survival factors while repressed loci were generally involved in proliferation or differentiation. Depleting cyclin C in unstressed cells produced an approximately equal number of genes (∼2400) that were repressed by, or whose transcription required, cyclin C. Consistent with the possibility that cyclin C nuclear release contributes to transcriptional remodeling in response to oxidative stress, we found that 37% cyclin C-dependent genes were downregulated following stress. Moreover, 20% of cyclin C- repressed genes were induced in response to stress. These findings are consistent with a model that cyclin C relocalization to the cytoplasm, and corresponding inactivation of Cdk8, represents a regulatory mechanism to repress and stimulate transcription of stress-responsive genes.

Eukaryotic cells, when faced with unfavorable environmental conditions, mount either pro-survival or pro-death programs. The conserved cyclin C-Cdk8 kinase plays a key role in this decision. Both are members of the Cdk8 kinase module that, along with Med12 and Med13, associate with the core Mediator complex of RNA polymerase II. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, oxidative stress triggers Med13 destruction, which releases cyclin C into the cytoplasm to promote mitochondrial fission and programmed cell death. The SCFGrr1 ubiquitin ligase mediates Med13 degradation dependent on the cell wall integrity pathway, MAPK Slt2. Here we show that the AMP kinase Snf1 activates a second SCFGrr1 responsive degron in Med13. Deletion of Snf1 resulted in nuclear retention of cyclin C and failure to induce mitochondrial fragmentation. This degron was able to confer oxidative-stress-induced destruction when fused to a heterologous protein in a Snf1 dependent manner. Although snf1∆ mutants failed to destroy Med13, deleting the degron did not prevent destruction. These results indicate that the control of Med13 degradation following H2O2 stress is complex, being controlled simultaneously by CWI and MAPK pathways.

The Cdk8 kinase module (CKM) of the multi-subunit mediator complex plays an essential role in cell fate decisions in response to different environmental cues. In the budding yeast S. cerevisiae, the CKM consists of four conserved subunits (cyclin C and its cognate cyclin-dependent kinase Cdk8, Med13, and Med12) and predominantly negatively regulates a subset of stress responsive genes (SRG’s). Derepression of these SRG’s is accomplished by disassociating the CKM from the mediator, thus allowing RNA polymerase II-directed transcription. In response to cell death stimuli, cyclin C translocates to the mitochondria where it induces mitochondrial hyper-fission and promotes regulated cell death (RCD). The nuclear release of cyclin C requires Med13 destruction by the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). In contrast, to protect the cell from RCD following SRG induction induced by nutrient deprivation, cyclin C is rapidly destroyed by the UPS before it reaches the cytoplasm. This enables a survival response by two mechanisms: increased ATP production by retaining reticular mitochondrial morphology and relieving CKM-mediated repression on autophagy genes. Intriguingly, nitrogen starvation also stimulates Med13 destruction but through a different mechanism. Rather than destruction via the UPS, Med13 proteolysis occurs in the vacuole (yeast lysosome) via a newly identified Snx4-assisted autophagy pathway. Taken together, these findings reveal that the CKM regulates cell fate decisions by both transcriptional and non-transcriptional mechanisms, placing it at a convergence point between cell death and cell survival pathways.

Oxidative stress stimulates the Rho1 GTPase, which in turn induces the cell wall integrity (CWI) MAP kinase cascade. CWI activation promotes stress-responsive gene expression through activation of transcription factors (Rlm1, SBF) and nuclear release and subsequent destruction of the repressor cyclin C. This study reports that, in response to high hydrogen peroxide exposure, or in the presence of constitutively active Rho1, cyclin C still translocates to the cytoplasm and is degraded in cells lacking Bck1, the MAPKKK of the CWI pathway. However, in mutants defective for both Bck1 and Ste11, the MAPKKK from the high osmolarity, pseudohyphal and mating MAPK pathways, cyclin C nuclear to cytoplasmic relocalization and destruction is prevented. Further analysis revealed that cyclin C goes from a diffuse nuclear signal to a terminal nucleolar localization in this double mutant. Live cell imaging confirmed that cyclin C transiently passes through the nucleolus prior to cytoplasmic entry in wild-type cells. Taken together with previous studies, these results indicate that under low levels of oxidative stress, Bck1 activation is sufficient to induce cyclin C translocation and degradation. However, higher stress conditions also stimulate Ste11, which reinforces the stress signal to cyclin C and other transcription factors. This model would provide a mechanism by which different stress levels can be sensed and interpreted by the cell.

Following exposure to cytotoxic agents, cellular damage is first recognized by a variety of sensor mechanisms. Thenceforth, the damage signal is transduced to the nucleus to install the correct gene expression program including the induction of genes whose products either detoxify destructive compounds or repair the damage they cause. Next, the stress signal is disseminated throughout the cell to effect the appropriate changes at organelles including the mitochondria. The mitochondria represent an important signaling platform for the stress response. An initial stress response of the mitochondria is extensive fragmentation. If the damage is prodigious, the mitochondria fragment (fission) and lose their outer membrane integrity leading to the release of pro-apoptotic factors necessary for programmed cell death (PCD) execution. As this complex biological process contains many moving parts, it must be exquisitely coordinated as the ultimate decision is life or death. The conserved C-type cyclin plays an important role in executing this molecular Rubicon by coupling changes in gene expression to mitochondrial fission and PCD. Cyclin C, along with its cyclin dependent kinase partner Cdk8, associates with the RNA polymerase holoenzyme to regulate transcription. In particular, cyclin C-Cdk8 repress many stress responsive genes. To relieve this repression, cyclin C is destroyed in cells exposed to pro-oxidants and other stressors. However, prior to its destruction, cyclin C, but not Cdk8, is released from its nuclear anchor (Med13), translocates from the nucleus to the cytoplasm where it interacts with the fission machinery and is both necessary and sufficient to induce extensive mitochondria fragmentation. Furthermore, cytoplasmic cyclin C promotes PCD indicating that it mediates both mitochondrial fission and cell death pathways. This review will summarize the role cyclin C plays in regulating stress-responsive transcription. In addition, we will detail this new function mediating mitochondrial fission and PCD. Although both these roles of cyclin C are conserved, this review will concentrate on cyclin C's dual role in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

CDK8 and CDK19 Mediator kinases are transcriptional co-regulators implicated in several types of cancer. Small-molecule CDK8/19 inhibitors have recently entered or are entering clinical trials, starting with breast cancer and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). To identify other cancers where these novel drugs may provide benefit, we queried genomic and transcriptomic databases for potential impact of CDK8, CDK19, or their binding partner CCNC. sgRNA analysis of a panel of tumor cell lines showed that most tumor types represented in the panel, except for some central nervous system tumors, were not dependent on these genes. In contrast, analysis of clinical samples for alterations in these genes revealed a high frequency of gene amplification in two highly aggressive subtypes of prostate cancer and in some cancers of the GI tract, breast, bladder, and sarcomas. Analysis of survival correlations identified a group of cancers where CDK8 expression correlated with shorter survival (notably breast, prostate, cervical cancers, and esophageal adenocarcinoma). In some cancers (AML, melanoma, ovarian, and others), such correlations were limited to samples with a below-median tumor mutation burden. These results suggest that Mediator kinases are especially important in cancers that are driven primarily by transcriptional rather than mutational changes and warrant an investigation of their role in additional cancer types.

The cyclin dependent kinase CDK8, along with Med12 and Med13, form the kinase module of the Mediator complex. CDK8 expression associates with the activation of β-catenin in colon and gastric cancers. Herein, we applied docking-based virtual screening (VS) using the multiple crystal structures to identify several potent CDK8 inhibitors. The appropriate use of multiple crystal structures obtained a better enrichment of CDK8 conformations to cope with the protein flexibility. Later on, the 2D similarity search was used to find the derivatives of the high inhibitory CDK8 inhibitors we discovered by VS. Finally, we measured the dose response behaviors, the IC50 values of compound W-34, W-37, W-8, WS-2 are 6.5 nM, 36 nM, 93 nM, 9 nM, respectively. These novel leads provided good starting points to design and synthesis a series of highly selective and potent CDK8 inhibitors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hematologic malignancies represent the fourth most frequently diagnosed cancer in economically developed countries. In hematologic malignancies normal hematopoiesis is interrupted by uncontrolled growth of a genetically altered stem or progenitor cell (HSPC) that maintains its ability of self-renewal. Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) not only regulate the mammalian cell cycle, but also influence other vital cellular processes, such as stem cell renewal, differentiation, transcription, epigenetic regulation, apoptosis, and DNA repair. Chromosomal translocations, amplification, overexpression and altered CDK activities have been described in different types of human cancer, which have made them attractive targets for pharmacological inhibition. Mouse models deficient for one or more CDKs have significantly contributed to our current understanding of the physiological functions of CDKs, as well as their roles in human cancer. The present review focuses on selected cell cycle kinases with recent emerging key functions in hematopoiesis and in hematopoietic malignancies, such as CDK6 and its role in MLL-rearranged leukemia and acute lymphocytic leukemia, CDK1 and its regulator WEE-1 in acute myeloid leukemia, and cyclin C/CDK8/CDK19 complexes in T-cell acute lymphocytic leukemia. The knowledge gained from gene knockout experiments in mice of these kinases is also summarized. An overview of compounds targeting these kinases, which are currently in clinical development in various solid tumors and hematopoietic malignances, is presented. These include the CDK4/CDK6 inhibitors (palbociclib, LEE011, LY2835219), pan-CDK inhibitors that target CDK1 (dinaciclib, flavopiridol, AT7519, TG02, P276-00, terampeprocol and RGB 286638) as well as the WEE-1 kinase inhibitor, MK-1775. The advantage of combination therapy of cell cycle inhibitors with conventional chemotherapeutic agents used in the treatment of AML, such as cytarabine, is discussed.

CDK8 is a dissociable kinase module of the Mediator complex and has been shown to play an important role in transcriptional regulation in organisms as diverse as yeast and humans. Recent studies suggest that CDK8 functions as an oncoprotein in melanoma and colon cancer. Importantly, these studies were conducted using in vitro cell line models and the role of CDK8 in tumourigenesis in vivo has not been explored. We have generated a mouse with a Cdk8 conditional knockout allele and examined the consequences of Cdk8 loss on normal tissue homeostasis and tumour development in vivo. Cdk8 deletion in the young adult mouse did not induce any gross or histopathological abnormalities, implying that Cdk8 is largely dispensable for somatic cellular homeostasis. In contrast, Cdk8 deletion in the ApcMin intestinal tumour model shortened the animals' survival and increased tumour burden. Although Cdk8 deletion did not affect tumour initiation, intestinal tumour size and growth rate were significantly increased in Cdk8-null animals. Transcriptome analysis performed on Cdk8-null intestinal cells revealed up-regulation of genes that are governed by the Polycomb group ( PcG) complex. In support of these findings, Cdk8-null intestinal cells and tumours displayed a reduction in histone H3K27 trimethylation, both globally and at the promoters of a number of PcG-regulated genes involved in oncogenic signalling. Together, our findings uncover a tumour suppressor function for CDK8 in vivo and suggest that the role of CDK8 activity in driving oncogenesis is context-specific. Sequencing data were deposited at GEO (Accession No. GSE71385). Copyright © 2015 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Apoptosis or programmed cell death (PCD) was initially described in metazoans as a genetically controlled process leading to intracellular breakdown and engulfment by a neighboring cell . This process was distinguished from other forms of cell death like necrosis by maintenance of plasma membrane integrity prior to engulfment and the well-defined genetic system controlling this process. Apoptosis was originally described as a mechanism to reshape tissues during development. Given this context, the assumption was made that this process would not be found in simpler eukaryotes such as budding yeast. Although basic components of the apoptotic pathway were identified in yeast, initial observations suggested that it was devoid of prosurvival and prodeath regulatory proteins identified in mammalian cells. However, as apoptosis became extensively linked to the elimination of damaged cells, key PCD regulatory proteins were identified in yeast that play similar roles in mammals. This review highlights recent discoveries that have permitted information regarding PCD regulation in yeast to now inform experiments in animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]