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A questionnaire was designed to aid the interested professional in describing, characteristics and analyzing his game, model, or simulation, and tested on a number of Department of Defense (DOD) games. An over-riding goal for the questionnaire was to produce a categorization scheme for games in general. The different sections of the questionnaire were designed to provide information on basic purposes, use benefits, and costs; characterization and description; man-machine interaction necessary for the game, simulation or model; and an open-ended assessment of the game, simulation or model. (Author/RH)

This paper describes a planning cost model for estimating the comparable replication cost of an educational program for use in evaluating alternative programs and planning future programs. The conceptual and methodological bases of cost analysis are explored and the shortcomings of present methods for comparison and evaluation of educational programs are described. The proposed model presents a framework for bringing together the resources (facilities, staff, equipment, and materials) required to carry out an educational program and for relating these resources to program output in the form of activities. These relationships provide information on the relative merits of selected changes in the activity structure of a total program, and on the cost consequences of changes in the resource utilization rate or in resource cost. Comparable replication costs for several different programs are estimated to illustrate the use of the model. (Author)

This report provides additional detail on the problems of test and measurement and cost analysis associated with performance contracting programs. The guide, addressed to school board members, administrators, and other educational decisionmakers who may be contemplating a performance contracting program, delineates the questions, issues, and choices these decisionmakers are likely to confront. Appendix A develops six points dealing with the measurement of learning gains. Appendix B explores the conceptual and methodological bases of cost analysis and describes a planning cost model to be used in estimating "comparable replication and incremental costs." Appendix C contains eight illustrative contracts between local educational agencies and learning system contractors. Related documents are ED 050 496-497, ED 056 247-252 and ED 060 391. (Author)

This report presents the findings and implications of some research on the relationships of some educational inputs and reading performance of disadvantaged California Title I pupils which utilized a highly simplified model of the compensatory education process. The data for the study were gathered by questionnaire administered in personal interviews to a six percent sample of California Title I projects, enrolling ten percent of California Title I students. All projects in the study used the same performance measure, the Stanford Reading Test. Information was gathered and used for pupils in four elementary grades. The instructional variable which is most consistently and dependably related to reading gains was that for the trained reading specialist. Specialist instruction was the only school input related to reading performance in the third grade considered separately, with the strength of the relationship even stronger in that grade than in the four pooled grades. While the variables for instruction by professionals were less statistically significant, they showed signs of having some importance. Of the variables constructed to measure planning and coordination, only that for hours of planning itself was related to performance. (Author/JM)

Educators often fail to implement improved teaching systems because they lack a method of choosing among instructional alternatives. The Rand Coporation is developing for the Air Force a means--called Method of Designing Instructional Alternatives (MODIA)--whereby instructors can select a preferred instructional system. Using MODIA, one begins by designating the personnel to be equipped with defined skills and by identifying the training requirements and instructional objectives. Instruction is planned, implemented, and validated. The first step involves the specification of inputs, including instructional plans, teaching strategies and learner characteristics. System design proceeds by linking instructional strategies to curriculum units, by developing configurations of personnel, media and facilities, by charting student flow through the course, and by analyzing the cost of each component. The results of a completed design cycle using MODIA for design and cost analysis of an innovative Air Force course are presented as an illustration of the method. (PB)

The use of television as a component of instructional programs designed for home-based students was studied. Three on-going programs--Chicago's "TV College;" Bavaria's "Telekolleg", and a Children's Television Workshop series, "Sesame Street"--were chosen for examination. The planning and development stages of these three projects are discussed, pointing out the procedures, activities, and elements of each that appear particularly significant to its success. A checklist of items necessary in the development of a new instructional program using television classifies under four phases those components necessary for success. A general model is described that synthesizes the successful components in the preplanning, planning, promotion, production, operations, and evaluation stages, and gives a comparison of costs. (JY)

A methodology for busing to achieve school desegregation is described. Two different approaches are proposed: a student interracial contact score and a quota method. Travel time and number of children bused are proxies for busing costs. Useful data include travel time, school capacity, and student residences for each region and level of school. A higher ceiling on individual travel time allows greater balance within the area. For example, when contiguous districts are added, busing 25% of the students can achieve 95% desegregation with a 45-minute upper limit as opposed to 90% with a 35 minute upper limit. Portable classrooms are not very helpful nor is splitting schools into smaller grade spans. For the sample city, cost of raising desegregation from 41% to 85% was $16 million ($25 per student). The critical factor in reducing costs is the greater use of each bus by shorter trips and an efficient system of staggering school starting hours. Alternatives to daily busing are described. (DJ)

In assessing the possibilities of using cable television to serve the needs of higher education, it is useful to examine the experience already accumulated by educational institutions in the use of cable channels. Two particularly interesting cases are those of Oregon State University (OSU) and the University of Oregon. OSU employs its cable channel nearly full-time during the day to televise course presentations (largely of scientific and engineering subjects) to students both on and off campus. Enrollments in these televised courses has grown to 8,500 students annually. The rationale for employing the cable channel is to save money and classroom space. The University of Oregon employs its channel, not to present course materials directly, but to supplement and enrich live course presentations in the classroom by providing programming at the request of individual faculty members. In addition, the channel provides a daily message service, an information service as an integral part of the University's registration procedures, and local community programming. A possible explanation for the University of Oregon's lack of televised course presentations is that the school is largely a liberal arts school and neither the courses nor the faculty are amenable to the idea of new technology. (JY)

This report presents a description of a process for instructional system design, identification of the steps in the design process, and determination of their sequence and interrelationships. As currently envisioned, several interrelated steps must be taken, five of which provide the inputs to the final design process. There are analysis of learner population, statement of general policy, lesson analysis, specification of strategies of instruction, and specification of design criteria. The final design process generates a description of the instructional system in terms of its time-dependent requirements for resources: personnel, facilities, materials, and equipment. The last step is a cost analysis to determine the dollar requirements for the system. These outputs will assist the educational planner in implementing new methods of instruction. (Author)

Once a computer system has been established, and the capabilities exist for the kind of data manipulation which could produce either a book catalog, with as many access points as seem desirable, or catalog cards if desired, the next question to be resolved is whether a book catalog is an economically feasible substitute for catalog cards. The advantages and disadvantages of both card catalog and book catalogs are considered. It is concluded that it is not economically sound to plan on a book catalog unless many copies are required, or the unusually high per-copy costs for a small number can be justified. (Author/MM)

This memorandum derives estimates of the private rate of return to schooling for men and women based on a 1965 labor force survey, past cross-sectional data, and the long-term educational public policy of Bogota, Colombia. Here resources may be viewed as an investment in the future productive capacity of people. Depending on the costs and benefits associated with a particular educational activity and alternative investment opportunities, this activity may or may not be an attractive investment for efficiently promoting economic development. This association between schooling level and earnings, or the private rate of return, along with a partial social rate are estimated for elementary, secondary, vocational, and higher education. The empirical findings state that the private and social returns on both men's and women's secondary and vocational education, and to some extent, men's primary schooling, are high in Bogota. But the returns on university education are unusually low. It is concluded, therefore, that a high economic priority should be given to the expansion of secondary and vocational education with particular emphases given to achieving a more equal distribution of educational opportunities between urban and rural, rich and poor regions of the country. Continued expansion of public support for higher education without rapid growth in domestic demand for high level talent is not likely to be remunerative, and may only accelerate emigration of universty graduates abroad. (Author/AWW)

The goal of this conference was not exchange of information, but rather, identification of the decisions that should be made by higher education, industry, and government to facilitate the valid growth of the instructional use of the computer. Four major questions concerned the conferees: What will be the computer's capabilities and cost? How will computer services be provided to the campus? How will instructional materials be provided? and How will higher education be affected by instructional computer use? The reports of the conference sessions are divided into three sections; first, discussions of the range of possible answers to the major questions; second, reports on the recommendations developed by the several studies of instructional computer use that are currently under way or have been recently completed; and third, specific recommendations for higher education, industry, and government. (JY)

A means for estimating the resource requirements and attendant costs of any configuration of the undergraduate pilot training system (UPT) is described by inputs that are supplied by the user of the model. The inputs consist of data such as UPT graduate requirements, course syllabus requirements, instructor-student ratios, administrative and support manpower relationships, number of aircraft and simulators available, aircraft and simulator utilization rates, amount of facilities available, and cost relationships. The UPT model, which is designed to aid the user in examining long-range alternatives in yearly increments for up to 20 years, calculates the costs associated with these resource requirements in terms of research and development costs, investment costs, and operating costs. Among the alternatives that can be examined are changes in the numbers and types of training aircraft and simulators used; adjustments in prescribed syllabus hours for flight, simulator or classroom training; changes in numbers of graduates required; modifications of aircraft or simulator utilization rates; and changes in airspace, facilities (e.g., runways) or numbers of training bases. For related documents, see AC 010 340-346. (Author/DB)

This Memorandum is a manual or guide for users of the Undergraduate Pilot Training (UPT) computer cost model. The UPT model is designed to enable the user to estimate UPT requirements for manpower, supplies, equipment, services and facilities and the costs of those resources in terms of research and development costs, investment costs and annual operating costs. Section I of the Memorandum is an introductory explanation of the purposes of the model. Section II is a general description of the program in terms of what each subroutine does. Section III illustrates a feature unique to the IBM 360 operating system, used with this computer program to reduce the core storage requirement for execution. Section IV describes data inputs and illustrates the input procedure using a listing of a sample input deck. Section V contains a description of two forms of output and an illustration of one of these forms. The UPT cost model program is written in FORTRAN IV. During execution, the program requires approximately 145K bytes of core storage on an IBM 360/65 computer, if the OVERLAY feature is used. All input data are read from cards and the output is printed. A listing of the program input data elements is presented in Appendix A. A symbolic listing of the Fortran IV computer program is included as Appendix B. Appendix C presents the program in flowchart form. For related documents, see AC 010 340-343 and AC 010 345-347. (Author/CK)

The Advanced Pilot Training Cost Model is a statement of relationships that may be used, given the necessary inputs, for estimating the resources required and the costs to train pilots in the Air Force formal flying training schools. Resources and costs are computed by weapon system on an annual basis for use in long-range planning or sensitivity analyses. The model may be used for any number of weapon systems for any number of years. Total operating cost, incremental investment cost, and operating cost per graduate are computed. Resource requirements include personnel, aircraft, and simulators. This document describes the structure of the cost estimating model and the problems encountered in its development. All of the relationships embodied in the model are explained and examples of its use for sensitivity studies are given. For related documents see AC 010 340-344 and AC 010 346-347. (Author/CK)

This Memorandum describes a computer program for calculating, except for facilities, the required resources and related costs of formal advanced pilot training courses. Facilities are assumed to be inherited and hence are treated as sunk costs. The program is based on a previously presented methodology. The first three sections of this Memorandum deal with a general description of the program and its operations. Specific operating instructions are given in Section IV. In conjunction with Section IV, appendices are presented showing a listing of all program variables used in the calculations, detailed flow charts of the program, and a source listing [FORTRAN-IV (IBM 360/365)] of the program. Program outputs are discussed in Section V. For related documents see AC 010 340-342 and AC 010 344-347. (Author/CK)

The results of the Rand study of pilot flows and the computer-operated decision model, called the PILOT model, are described. The flows of pilots within the Air Force are caused by policies that require the career-development rotation of pilots from cockpit jobs to desk jobs, the maintenance of a supplement of pilots in excess of cockpit-related needs, the cross-training of pilots from one aircraft system to another, and by factors such as retirement, resignation, promotion, and age limitations on flying status. The model has inputs of pilot requirements by year, aircraft system, and type of pilot, plus appropriate descriptions of the various personnel flows. The outputs are the numbers of graduates required each year from the various formal training schools to meet the need for pilots. Problems concerning future training programs, pilot loss rates, and policy variables controlling pilot flows may be examined with the PILOT model. The model may also be used in conjunction with resource and cost models to obtain pilot requirements and statements of personnel flow policy which are translated directly into annual training costs. For related documents, see AC 010 341-347. (Author/DB)

The cost of training, as conducted by the Air Force Academy, Reserve Officer Training Corps, and Officer Training School, and leading to the commissioning of new Air Force officers is presented. The student flows, personnel resources required to support the flows, and costs of pilot candidates graduating from each of the three commissioning sources were analyzed. These analyses were made to develop estimating relationships and predictive factors that may be used for estimating pilot candidate costs over a range of commissioned officer production. The analysis for each training program involved is comprised of the following: (1) the study of flow factors; (2) the calculation of average attrition rates; (3) the identification of student load capacities; (4) the determination of historical costs of training at past student-load levels; and (5) the estimation of future costs of training at varying production levels, with costs adjusted to FY 1968 dollars and to take into account estimates of future attrition rates. For related documents, see AC 010 340-341 and AC 010 343-347. (Author/DB)

An overview is presented of advanced pilot training and of the formal advanced pilot training program that constitutes the primary means of providing this training. Section I deals with the various phases of advanced pilot training that a pilot may encounter during his career; Section II deals with the types of aircraft that require some form of advanced pilot training; Section III describes organizational frameworks for the conduct of the formal courses; Section IV describes the general contents of the formal training courses; Section V discusses the variations in course lengths, lead-in courses, and the pilot qualifications required for entry; Section VI presents a general equation relating course length to training hours; and Section VII deals with the problem of determining the resources that contribute to the cost of pilot training. A bibliography and glossary are included. For related documents, see AC 010 340 and AC 010 342-347. (Author/DB)

This report is an evaluation by the Rand Corporation of a project designed to raise reading and arithmetic achievement of disadvantaged junior high school students. The project was prepared by Lockheed Missiles and Space Company for the San Jose Unified School District. Described are both the original R-3 program for a small number of students and the current program for a seventh-grade student in a single junior high school. The basic concepts of the remedial programs were: motivational activities to provide curriculum relevance, intensive involvements to improve teacher-student rapport, reading and arithmetic tailored to individual needs, and parental involvement in their children's school activities. Effectiveness and cost are separately analyzed. During a period of four months the average reading gain of students was five months; arithmetic, three months. Students with the lowest entering scores gained eight months in both subjects. Absences increased, but referrals and suspensions decreased. Costs are summarized by major program components including management, dissemination, inservice-training, mathematics, reading, humanities, field trips, and parental involvement. Finally, a cost-effectiveness model is developed which can be used for assessing the impact of change in resource allocation. (JG)

The Texarkana model of performance contracting consists of five major elements: (1) turnkeying of cost-effective new technology as a basic program goal, (2) use of a performance contract for instruction, (3) use of a management support contractor, (4) selection of the learning system contractor by formal competition, and (5) use of independent evaluators and auditors. It is clear from the Texarkana experience in 1970-71 that performance contracting has been a mechanism for educational process change. In both years, the program successfully met the goal of reducing the dropout rate. It was unsuccessful, however, in producing any significant achievement gains as measured by standardized norm-referenced tests. Achievement measurement still has many logistic, administrative and conceptual problems. Texarkana evaluation procedures' have enabled impressive feedback of pertinent managerial information. Model Cities provided a mechanism for solving some problems and a source of seed money for modest expansion and development of the program. For related documents, see ED 056247, 248, 250, 251, and 252. (Author/CK)

This volume presents conclusions and implications derived from five cities' experience with performance contracting in education: Norfolk, Virginia; Texarkana, Arkansas (with Liberty-Eylau, Texas); Gary, Indiana, Gilroy, California; and Grand Rapids, Michigan. The five case studies cover eight programs in 15 schools. While each study is treated in a self-contained report, it has also been part of a coordinated investigation of more than 20 programs conducted from 1969 to 1971. This volume begins with a brief description of Rand's field study. Implications are then discussed under seven headings: instructional processes, cognitive growth, resource requirements, evaluation, program management, returns to contractors, and the major advantages and disadvantages of performance contracting. Conclusions include: (1) Individualized instruction was the goal of all programs; (2) The performance contracts, in most cases, produced respectable gains on standardized achievement tests; (3) Costs of programs vary widely; (4) Performance contracting fostered a healthy emphasis on the student and his learning as a measure of program success; (5) Performance contracting is proving to be a useful research and development tool; (6) This contracting has not generated large profits so far; (7) Performance contracting facilitates the introduction of radical change in education; (8) Some programs have been so complex that management has been severely hampered. For related documents, see ED 056 248 through ED 056 252. (Author/CK)

Abstracts of over 300 unclassified Rand Corporation studies dealing with various aspects of computing technology are presented in this bibliography. The studies selected were all issued during the period January 1963 through December 1971. A subject index which includes a brief annotation and code number for each entry and an author index are presented first. The major portion of the bibliography is comprised of the abstracts for each study and includes information such as the code number or availability if it is a book, the title, author, and date. An order form is appended which provides price information and whether or not the document is available from the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information. (Author/SH)

This report provides a detailed description of an education program cost model designed to accept descriptions of the size and composition of resources used in a particular program and translate them into an estimate of program cost, for convenient comparison of alternatives. The model also translates ("crosswalks") the program budget into traditional format as may be required by law. At present, many school districts create a "program budget" by reversing this process, thus losing the entire program planning aspect of PPB. The Rand model described here outputs 5-year cost estimates by (1) major program area, (2) standard budget category, and (3) program cost by budget category. The program cost output uses the approach suggested by California's Advisory Commission on School District Budgeting and Accounting, where "programs" are essentially subject areas and administrative functions. Although these definitions fall short of a true program, they are far more useful than the conventional resource categories. The computer program is not discussed. (Page 5 may reproduce poorly.) (Author)

There is no unique answer to the question of what an ongoing program costs in medical schools. The estimates of program costs generated by classical methods of cost accounting are unsatisfactory because such accounting cannot deal with the joint production or joint cost problem. Activity analysis models aim at calculating the impact of alternative combinations of school activities. As now practiced, activity analysis yields the incremental cost of an activity given all other school activities, that is, pure program costs. Such analysis is a potentially useful management tool. Input/output analysis is a special form of activity analysis in which some activities provide both final outputs and input into other activities. Following the introduction in Section I, this paper deals with cost analysis in section II and III. Section II discusses cost allocation studies that use the tools of classical cost accounting. Section III analyzes the use of linear regression as a tool for cost allocation, and Section IV examines activity analysis and optimization analysis. (Author/PG)

The document analyzes economic factors that might cause the output of educational services to diverge from the theoretical optimum because of a divergence between marginal social valuation and marginal social cost. Education contains both investment and consumption aspects. The analysis shows that the only distortion resulting from uncertainty arises because information is a public good whose supply should be increased: there need be no distortion attributable to "capital market imperfections"; all else being equal, current tax laws encourage relatively too much educational investment in human capital. Additionally, the educational services market is in disequilibrium because the education boom of the 1960s left it with a large fixed investment in buildings and many tenured teachers; a mother's education importantly affects her children's future success, the father's less so, but the present value of this future intergenerational transfer is small. Tentative conclusions indicate an increase in social subsidy of education is justified and should be directed to grade schools. An 18-item bibliography is included. (Author)

This analysis of 1,200 educational research and development projects taken from the U.S. Office of Education's "Current Project Resumes, July 1970" was made to determine the crucial objectives or activities which have a direct effect on project costs, as part of the planning for the National Institute of Education. Projects were categorized according to the kind of output: theoretical, analytical, and experimental studies; surveys; evaluations;developmental projects; training programs in educational research; conferences, workshops, and symposiums; and research and development centers and regional laboratories. Categories were divided into subgroups according to project cost and were subsequently analyzed for common cost-differentiating characteristics. Flow charts using sequential questions were developed for sorting the projects into their appropriate cost groups. Eight percent of the projects studied did not fit the classification scheme; that is, they were sorted into one group on the basis of their cost and into a different group on the basis of their descriptive characteristics. The classification scheme is limited by the accuracy of the data reported in the project resumes with regard to a) adequacy of funding level, b) quality of investigator or project outcome, and c) amount of supplementary funding from sources other than the Office of Education. (HMD)