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Teaching of computer programming in elementary and secondary schools has become a very popular activity. The purpose of this paper is to review and analyze the empirical research on the benefits of learning computer programming on students' cognition abilities. The paper focuses on the question: Do the skills of computer programming transfer to students' cognition? The paper is organized into three sections based on the measurement outcomes of each study. Section 1 contains seven studies that investigated the relationship of programming with the following general cognitive outcomes: metacognitive ability, cognitive development, cognitive growth, general ability, creativity, and achievement. Section 2 contains eight studies that analyze the relationship between learning computer programming and problem solving. Section 3 contains six studies that examine learning computer programming with the following specific cognitive skills: rule-learning tasks, development of thinking skills, reasoning skills, general variable skills, and planning skills. In the 21 studies reviewed one half showed learning computer programming did not affect student cognition, and the other half showed some positive effects. However, the author concludes that all of the studies were flawed. For example only one study reported the reliability and validity of its instruments. Based on the studies, the author concludes that there is no relationship between learning computer programming and student cognition. (PR)

The Knowledge Engineering for Young Scholars (KEYS) Program was a National Science Foundation (NSF) program conducted at Louisiana State University during 1989 and 1990. The program's goals were to increase 8th-12th grade students' exposure to science, acquaint them with university research, stimulate interest in science, and build their confidence to pursue science careers. To achieve this goal students were introduced to the concepts of artificial intelligence, expert systems, and knowledge-based systems. This document presents the evaluation report of the KEYS Program in six sections. The first section identifies the goal of the program. The second section provides information about the purpose of the program, a program description, student recruitment and selection criteria, program activities, career awareness activities, philosophy and ethics of science activities, follow-up activities, the project setting, a staff profile, and cost considerations. The third section describes the evaluation study of the program that included NSF pre- and post-participation survey forms, and interviews with KEYS program managers (n=2), faculty mentors (n=2), program teachers (n=2), counselors (n=2), and random samples of student participants (n=10), parents of KEYS student participants (n=6), and applicants who did not participate (n=10). The fourth section provides brief summaries of each groups' responses to specific interview questions, and results of the NSF surveys. The fifth section concludes that: (1) since the participants were already highly motivated and interested in science careers, little change in reported interest was evidenced; (2) student participants' self report on their confidence level for their first choice of a major in college was not reliable; and (3) students did report that they did work with university faculty, develop expert systems, and learned about careers in science. The sixth section presents recommendations concerning program length, effective activities, participant recruitment, participation fees, and program assessment techniques. An appendix provides sample abstracts of KEYS students' expert systems. (MDH)

As a baseline measurement of what is being learned about computers in California, the skills, knowledge, attitudes, and experiences of a representative sample of 17,861 high school seniors was assessed in December 1982. Developed by a committee of experts in computer technology drawn from the public school system, universities, and industry, the test permitted reporting of scores for 30 distinct computer science and computer literacy objectives. Nearly all groups studied showed a low level of understanding of the basic concepts of computer technology. Students who reported substantial programming experience were exceptions, and demonstrated a higher level of knowledge. Comparison of results with those from an earlier survey by the National Assessment of Educational Progress showed considerable gains in awareness of computer technology over the last 5 years. Boys appeared to have more access to and experience with computers than girls. Both of these factors were associated with higher test scores. Students from families with more education tended to score higher than those from families with less education. This report includes 23 tables, 3 figures, and a list of computer literacy objectives for students. (Author/LMM)

The county education office of Mendocino County, California, serving nine school districts and 11,800 elementary and secondary students, began planning for computers in 1979-1980, purchased two central computers, and by 1983 had one computer or terminal for every 40 students in the county. The county was characterized by its very enthusiastic administrators and by their willingness to experiment and make mistakes. It successfully focused its initial efforts on using computers to improve administration and special education. An evaluation visit to four of the districts revealed that most districts used computers for administrative purposes but that computer instruction was growing. Elementary schools offered some programming and many high schools offered computer literacy, word processing, and programming courses. One alternative high school offered an extensive program of creative computing including music and graphics generation. Despite tight economic conditions, the county managed to find funding for computers from state and federal sources, grants, and discretionary funds. The county spent about $1,000,000 for hardware and software from 1980-1983 and decided to budget $175,000/year to maintain the equipment. The effect of geographical isolation on the desire for information was seen as significant to the county's successful move to computer use. (SB)

Intended for elementary and secondary teachers and curriculum specialists, this booklet discusses and defines computer literacy as a functional knowledge of computers and their effects on students and the rest of society. It analyzes personal computing and the aspects of computers that have direct impact on students. Outlining computer-assisted learning (CAL), the author delineates two types: tutor mode CAL (the computer imparts knowledge to the student) and tutee mode CAL (the student directs interaction with the computer). Discussing the use of computers as an aid to problem solving in the classroom, the author predicts it will substantially change parts of the curriculum. The discipline of computer and information science is a new and important discipline, and high schools may need to provide such courses as part of computer literacy. Describing entertainment uses for the computer, the author shows there is no clear dividing line between entertainment and education. Students understanding the computer's potential for change are better prepared to plan their future. The booklet includes a glossary of computer terms. (MD)

This 5-section report summarizes the results of a project concerned with how novices learn to become creative educational computer users. Based on a cognitive analysis of elementary programming statements in BASIC and calculator language into conceptual units, the project builds on previous research on learning BASIC programming. A general description of the project is followed by a review of the literature on the psychology of computer programming, especially research in cognitive psychology related to beginning programming. The analysis of both a calculator language and BASIC into conceptual units and the evaluation of users' knowledge is then described. Data on the frequency of misconceptions in users' knowledge of calculator and BASIC languages are presented. Focusing on instructional techniques useful in the remediation of specific misconceptions of users' knowledge of calculator and BASIC languages, the final chapters explore the effectiveness of teaching mental models and whether use of the models enhances problem-solving performance. References are included in each section, and an appendix lists additional papers and publications which are products of the project under review (either published or in preparation). (LMM)

This three-part volume provides a summary, for use by practitioners, of a project concerned with how novices learn to become creative educational computer users. The first chapter examines techniques for increasing the novice's understanding of computers and computer programming, and specifically analyzes the potential usefulness of five recommendations for the design of computer literacy curricula. For each recommendation, a statement of the issue, an example, relevant background, and a brief review of the relevant research literature are provided. In the second chapter, a framework is presented for describing users' knowledge of how a simple 4-function calculator operates, and data on individual differences among novices and experts in their conceptions of a calculator's internal operations for various sequences are summarized. The third chapter provides a summary of a study in which 30 undergraduates learned BASIC programming language through a self-paced mastery manual and were tested on their mental models for the execution of each of nine BASIC statements. A catalog is then presented of beginning programmer's conceptions of the internal functions of the computer for each of the BASIC statements based on test results. Each section includes tables and references. (LMM)

This final report summarizes research findings and presents a model for generative computer assisted instruction (CAI) with respect to its usefulness in the classroom environment. Methods used to individualize instruction, and the evolution of a procedure used to select a concept for presentation to a student with the generative CAI system are described. The model served as the basis for the design of a CAI system, teaching problem-solving in an introductory course in digital systems design. The system individualizes the instruction which each student receives in accordance with its record of his past performance. In addition, a heuristic technique is used to determine the best path for each student through the tree of course concepts. The refinement of this method of concept selection is described. An evaluation of the generative CAI system and results of classroom usage are also presented. (Author/DAG)

The first formal author training course for the Tutor programing language and the use of the PLATO system was designed and conducted by the Military Training Centers (MTC) group. The course was developed according to thirteen cognitive and affective principles, and was used over a period of three years to train approximately 100 authors. This report contains a statement of the principles and a description of their implementation, including many examples from course materials. It also recounts the highlights and turning points of the author training course, reviews the basis for its modification, and examines the dilemmas encountered in teaching new authors to prepare computer-based instruction materials. Techniques for resolving some of these dilemmas are suggested. Also included is the course feedback from outside groups. This report is directed to instructors of new authors, developers of author training materials, and managers of computer-based instruction development centers. (Author/SC)

A two-year experiment in educational computer usage and program exchange sponsored by the National Science Foundation is described in the body of this review. The purpose of the project was to set up a prototype organization of five university computer centers in order to establish a set of procedures that would facilitate the efficient sharing of computer programs among the five centers. The main document in the report briefly describes: the reasons for having this kind of exchange program; the mechanics of the organization that was set up; the progress made in the first two years of the project; a review of the problems encountered in the moving of programs; and a set of conclusions and recommendations for those who may be involved in the moving of programs from one computer to another. The fifteen appendixes include discussions of a variety of related problem areas, and, together with the introduction, provide a valuable text that should be useful to anyone working with computers in the academic community. (WDR)

After consideration of two recent examples of instruction sets for microprogramable computers, the article sketches known and new results about complete sets of functions which appear to be applicable to microlanguage development. Some needed areas of research are pointed out. Functional completeness is linked to research in control primitives for machines. (Author)

The effect of different communicating modes to computers on students' attitudes toward programing was studied. In a computer-related course, 13 students used batch processing mode to solve problems on the computer, while 12 other students used conversational mode to solve the same problems. It was found that those students accessing the computer in conversational mode developed more positive attitudes toward programing (as measured by the author's attitude test) than the students using batch processing. Also the grades obtained in the time-sharing environment did not seem to affect the students' final attitudes towards programing. The majority of two-year college computer centers operate under batch processing mode. This could be a factor in the high student attrition rate in introductory programing classes. To lower this rate, and to make the computer more accessible to the campus classroom, it is suggested that minisystems with numerous learner consoles be used. (Author)

This report is a preliminary description of a prototype of a second generation version of the PLATO IV (Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations) student terminal. Development of a new terminal has been pursued with two objectives: to generate a more economic version of the PLATO IV terminal, and to expand capacities and performance of student terminals. The terminal design is a miniature computer system containing all the standard features of large computer systems including a processing unit, memory, and an input-output structure. This miniature computer system performs as a PLATO terminal by attaching a plasma display panel to the terminal. The computer is programable and can execute programs locally. A library of programs and a set of self-diagnostic routines to be used to maintain the terminal are also being developed. (CH)

The currently operational version of the INGRES data base management system gives a relational view of data, supports two high level, non-procedural data sublanguages, and runs as a collection of user processes on top of a UNIX operating system. The authors stress the design decisions and tradeoffs in relation to (1) structuring the system into processes, (2) embedding one command language in a general purpose programing language, (3) the algorithms implemented to process in interactions, (4) the access methods implemented, (5) the concurrency and recovery control provided, (6) support for views, protection and integrity constraints, and (7) the data structures used for system catalogs and role of the data base administrator. (Author/CH)

The development and capabilities of an interactive preprocessor program with graphics for an existing three-dimensional finite element code is presented. This preprocessor program, EDGAP3D, is designed to be used in conjunction with the Texas Three Dimensional Grain Analysis Program (TXCAP3D). The code presented in this research is capable of the verification and modification of data generated by TXGAP3D. The particular areas which can be handled by the code are those of grid point location, element connectivity, and boundary condition information as well as the addition and deletion of elements from the generated data. The interactive graphics provide a simple flexible visual aid and can be used with any graphics machine capable of interpreting standard Calcomp instructions. A user's input guide to EDGAP3D is appended along with an example session illustrating the use of the preprocessor program. (Author/CH)

This paper describes the design, installation, testing, and operation of a computer-based record keeping system for computer terminals and equipment. The system provides all levels of data management for maintenance with instantaneous reports on location of equipment, cost of equipment, cost of repairs, inventory and parts control, as well as a chronological history of both scheduled and emergency repairs of equipment. The management information system is programed in FORTRAN on a CDC-6600/6400 TAURUS time-sharing system. (Author/CH)

A computer program for the sizing of subsonic and supersonic fighter planes was adapted for use in an aerospace engineering course at the University of Texas at Austin. FIGHTER uses classroom notation and separate subroutines for different disciplines to implement the conceptual design process. Input consists of a set of design variables and a set of mission variables. FIGHTER begins by computing the geometry of the aircraft. Next, it is flown (on the computer) through the prescribed mission to compute fuel requirements. After the aircraft has been flown through the entire mission, the design variables, the geometry, and the fuel weight are used to compute a new take-off gross weight. The entire process is repeated until assumed gross weight and computed gross weight differ by a small amount. A formal evaluation of FIGHTER was made by eight instructors of aerospace technology at other universities who used the program. (CH)

Computer programs capable of describing the thermal behavior of buildings are used to help architectural students understand environmental systems. The Numerical Simulation Laboratory at the Architectural School of the University of Texas at Austin was developed to provide the necessary software capable of simulating the energy transactions affecting the environment of internal spaces of buildings and to make these programs easily accessible to students. Several specialized programs of the Dynamic Energy Response of Buildings (DEROB) system were integrated to describe the energy transactions within a building: Solar generates solar exposure tables; PERSP produces solar perspective views of the structure; GLASS uses dielectric algorithms to describe the dynamic energy responses of solid walls; and DYNWALB describes the energy behavior of opaque walls. Evaluation of the architectural design course using computer-assisted instruction shows an increase in skills and a strong level of student receptivity to the project. (CH)

Developed and demonstrated here is the design of interface systems for cost-effective communication of the user with the computerized operations research procedures. The concentration is in the area of interfacing methods for implementing the optimization techniques of mathematical programing. Emphasis is given to flexibility of accessing the algorithm, cost-effectiveness, and pedagogical or self-teaching aspects of the interface systems. Methods which take advantage of the characteristics of the input model, for soliciting, storing, and analyzing the input information, are investigated. Concepts in higher level interfacing systems are also explored. Linear programing is the vehicle for experimental development of interface systems. The results are applicable to other mathematical programing procedures. (Author/MP)

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the parallel processing impact of multiple-instruction multiple-data path (MIMD) computers on flight simulation software. Basic mathematical functions and arithmetic expressions from typical flight simulation software were selected and run on an MIMD computer to evaluate the improvement in execution time that results from the parallel architecture of this type of computer. Recommendations as to the types of tasks which are optimally suitable for this computer architecture are made, together with the improvement in execution speed to be expected. Twenty-six references are listed. (Author/LLS)

This report describes the principal findings and recommendations of a 2-year Rand research project on machine-aided knowledge acquisition and discusses the transfer of expertise from humans to machines, as well as the functions of planning, debugging, knowledge refinement, and autonomous machine learning. The relative advantages of humans and machines in the building of intelligent systems are explained. Background and guidance is provided for policymakers concerned with the research and development of machine-based learning systems. The research method adopted emphasized iterative refinement of knowledge in response to actual experience; i.e., a machine's knowledge was acquired initially from a human who provided enough concepts, constraints, and problem-solving heuristics to define some minimal level of performance. Sixty-two references are listed. (Author/FM)

This document describes how to teach a computer to add numbers using the LOGO programing language. The programing project is described in the way a student might develop it. The model of developing the program uses humans as an anthropomorphic model for the computer, and the computer as a model for people. The document has an unorthodox style, as much of it is in the form of a monologue that reflects a programer's mind who is working on a project. The paper concludes with the goals of the project that were attained and contains suggestions for further extension of the investigation. (MP)

This document focuses on the use of a computer and the LOGO programing language by an eight-year-old boy. The stepping of variables, which is the development and incrementally changing of one of several variables, is an idea that is followed in one child's mind as he effectively directs himself in a freely-chosen problem-solving situation. The specific case of this child is used to show how the power of the computer in education can go well beyond the "traditional" roles of drill-and-practice and game playing. (MP)

In this study, the social interaction of 151 children, ages 8 through 13, attending a summer computer camp were observed as they worked with the computers. They were also asked to complete a questionnaire that focused on social dilemmas in a technological environment. The dilemmas focused on the acceptability of copying someone else's program or altering passwords. Analysis of variance and regression techniques were used on the questionnaire data and these were compared to results of the observations. Results indicated distinct behavior patterns. Students had not considered the social implications of using another's information or data nor the right to privacy that might be invaded by the misuse of information technology. When their own privacy was infringed upon, participants demanded harsh penalties. Most students engaged in group problem-solving strategies while solving technology related problems, thus circumventing traditional individualistic learning patterns. While working with information technology systems, student behavior patterns seemed directly related to previous experience with computer games and other popularized forms of information technology. (IS)

Misconceptions high school students have about constructs in the BASIC programming language were examined in this study. A total of 96 high school students received a screening test after a semester course in BASIC programming, and 56 of these students were subsequently interviewed by means of questions and short programs prepared in advance. The purpose of the screening test was to detect possible problems with constructs such as reading data, branching, and looping. Tape recordings, written notes, and responses generated during the interviews were used to determine patterns of errors and misconceptions. Notations of frequently, fairly frequently, and occasional were given to the students' error rate. The most common errors were: (1) reversal of assignment statement; (2) misinterpretation of quotation marks; (3) difficulties with READ statements; (4) loop construction; and (5) IF statement utilization. Examples of the most common errors are included to illustrate each misconception together with student remarks as to why the error occurred. A summary assessment of students interviewed concludes the report. (JB)

The goal of this special demonstration project was to develop adult secondary business education courses related to the computer. An additional phase focused on the development of a microcomputer-based program providing the needed computer literacy and applications for its use. An advisory committee identified five areas of instructional need: word processing, computer programming, computer accounting, data entry, and microcomputer use. The six instructors who would teach the courses developed course descriptions, topical outlines, course plans, and promotional material and examined and selected software for each area. Following the 10-page narrative, appendixes provide the materials produced. These include the materials for an introductory computer terminal applications course (course outline, day-to-day plans), computerized accounting (course outline, software instructions, curriculum guide, and course plan), computer programming (structured BASIC course outline and day-to-day plan, COBOL course outline), word processing (introduction, course day-to-day plan, sample instructor assignment sheet), and data entry (course outline). Other appendixes contain promotional and certificate program information, a paper on microcomputer use in adult learning center classes, a description of a microcomputer use course, and ratings of evaluated software. (YLB)

A disk sector utility program (called TRAX) was designed and developed since a computer aid capable of inspecting and modifying the byte data on a disk platter, independent of any other program or system, was not commercially available. This report: (1) provides an overview of the TRAX system; (2) briefly describes the major system options; and (3) contains a guide to operating the TRAX utility. (JN)

This report explores the complex agenda of issues, promise, and problems that building a developmental science of programming entails and emphasizes the need to highlight different types of programming and programmers, the different cognitive subtasks involved in programming, and the social character of many programming efforts. An introduction discusses microcomputer use in schools, and problems with questions of the "cognitive demand of programming." Background issues addressed include the definition of computer programming, levels of programming skill development, the demands of learning to program, and programming as a cognitive activity. Theories of cognitive subtasks involved in programming are summarized, and the following subtasks are specifically discussed: understanding the problem, designing/planning the program, coding a program, and comprehending and debugging a program. Studies are reviewed that relate to programming skills development, the definition of a core of programming knowledge, and programmer aptitudes and abilities. Conclusions point out the narrow forces of existing research, the impossibility of separating "demand" questions from goals, the necessity of focusing on goals of computer education, individual versus social aspects of programming skills, and the limits of instructability of programming concepts/actions. A 37-page bibliography is included. (LMM)

To demonstrate to computer programmers that the programming language Ada provides superior facilities for use in artificial intelligence applications, the three papers included in this report investigate the capabilities that exist within Ada for "pattern-directed" programming. The first paper (Larry H. Reeker, Tulane University) is designed to serve as an introduction to pattern-directed programming and to the significance of the two papers that follow. It includes discussions of artificial intelligence programming and the facilities provided by the Ada language, pattern-directed computation, pattern matching, and parsing. The second paper (John Kreuter, Tulane University) describes a project which was part of an overall effort to add useful artificial intelligence tools to Ada through use of pattern-directed string processing of the sort available in the language Post-X (Bailes and Reeker, 1980). The third paper (Kenneth Wauchope, Tulane Unversity) presents a pattern-directed list processing facility for the Ada programming language. Pattern lists for matching against source lists are constructed from a set of SNOBOL4-derived primitives which have been extended to be applicable to arbitrarily complex LISP-like data structures. A list of references completes the document. (JB)

To better determine the cognitive abilities needed for computer programming, a study was done using 41 junior and senior level college students majoring in social and behavioral sciences at a Los Angeles area university. The subjects were first tested to determine their cognitive abilities with regard to spatial ability, field dependence/independence, general reasoning or non-verbal intellect, analytic versus holistic processing, and math skills. These results were then compared with the results of a test of the subjects' computer programming skills after 10 weeks of computer instruction. Results of this comparison show a positive correlation between computer programming and several cognitive abilities. A comparison of the results of this study with those of a similar study done by Shaha (1983) using graduate students indicates that this study verifies Shaha's findings with one major exception--the order of regression coefficients for overall programming ability. A table of regression coefficients and a bibliography are attached. (Author/JB)