Search

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to analyze the readability and level of word complexity of search engine results pages (SERPs) snippets and associated web pages between Google and Bing. Design/methodology/approach The authors employed the Readability Test Tool to analyze the readability and word complexity of 3,000 SERPs snippets and 3,000 associated pages in Google and Bing retrieved on 150 search queries issued by middle school children. Findings A significant difference was found in the readability of SERPs snippets and associated web pages between Google and Bing. A significant difference was also observed in the number of complex words in snippets between the two engines but not in associated web pages. At the engine level, the readability of Google and Bing snippets was significantly higher than associated web pages. The readability of Google SERPs snippets was at a much higher level than those of Bing. The readability of snippets in both engines mismatched with the reading comprehension of children in grades 6–8. Research limitations/implications The data corpus may be small. Analysis relied on quantitative measures. Practical implications Practitioners and other mediators should mitigate the readability issue in SERPs snippets. Researchers should consider text readability and word complexity simultaneously with other factors to obtain the nuanced understanding of young users’ web information behaviors. Additional theoretical and methodological implications are discussed. Originality/value This study measured the readability and the level of word complexity embedded in SERPs snippets and compared them to respective web pages in Google and Bing. Findings provide further evidence of the readability issue of SERPs snippets and the need to solve this issue through system design improvements.

We explored teens’ (aged 15–17) conceptual understanding of search engines (SEs), emphasizing search engine result pages (SERPs). In an online survey, we asked teens to articulate how a search engine (SE) finds, generates summaries of, and ranks search results; identify the structural components of search results; comment on learning in school about SEs; as well as provide suggestions for improving SEs. Of one-hundred and ten teens, twenty-two completed the survey. Analyses revealed that teens’ conceptual understanding of SERPs is more perceptual than conceptual and guided by incidental and experiential learnings rather than systematic instruction in school. We found a gap between teens’ understanding of the design and representation of the structural components of search results and Google designers’ conceptual model (interface design) of these components, suggesting the need for design that is more transparent and with better affordances and signifiers. Teens suggested three categories of design improvements in Google (SERPs, Search and Retrieval, and Privacy) in support of enhancing their experiences. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed.

In this paper, the robot-assisted Reminiscence Therapy (RT) is studied as a psychosocial intervention to persons with dementia (PwDs). We aim at a conversation strategy for the robot by reinforcement learning to stimulate the PwD to talk. Specifically, to characterize the stochastic reactions of a PwD to the robot’s actions, a simulation model of a PwD is developed which features the transition probabilities among different PwD states consisting of the response relevance, emotion levels and confusion conditions. A Q-learning (QL) algorithm is then designed to achieve the best conversation strategy for the robot. The objective is to stimulate the PwD to talk as much as possible while keeping the PwD’s states as positive as possible. In certain conditions, the achieved strategy gives the PwD choices to continue or change the topic, or stop the conversation, so that the PwD has a sense of control to mitigate the conversation stress. To achieve this, the standard QL algorithm is revised to deliberately integrate the impact of PwD’s choices into the Q-value updates. Finally, the simulation results demonstrate the learning convergence and validate the efficacy of the achieved strategy. Tests show that the strategy is capable to duly adjust the difficulty level of prompt according to the PwD’s states, take actions (e.g., repeat or explain the prompt, or comfort) to help the PwD out of bad states, and allow the PwD to control the conversation tendency when bad states continue.

We investigated the searching behaviors of twenty-four children in grades 6, 7, and 8 (ages 11–13) in finding information on three types of search tasks in Google. Children conducted 72 search sessions and issued 150 queries. Children's phrase- and question-like queries combined were much more prevalent than keyword queries (70% vs. 30%, respectively). Fifty two percent of the queries were reformulations (33 sessions). We classified children's query reformulation types into five classes based on the taxonomy by Liu et al. (2010). We found that most query reformulations were by Substitution and Specialization, and that children hardly repeated queries. We categorized children's queries by task facets and examined the way they expressed these facets in their query formulations and reformulations. Oldest children tended to target the general topic of search tasks in their queries most frequently, whereas younger children expressed one of the two facets more often. We assessed children's achieved task outcomes using the search task outcomes measure we developed. Children were mostly more successful on the fact-finding and fully self-generated task and partially successful on the research-oriented task. Query type, reformulation type, achieved task outcomes, and expressing task facets varied by task type and grade level. There was no significant effect of query length in words or of the number of queries issued on search task outcomes. The study findings have implications for human intervention, digital literacy, search task literacy, as well as for system intervention to support children's query formulation and reformulation during interaction with Google.

We investigate query characteristics and click behavior on SERPs of children in grades 6 and 8 (ages 11 and 13, respectively). We employ Retrospective Think-Aloud (RTA) protocol to elicit children's thought processes while clicking on results and to identify the sources of information that shaped these processes. We analyze the effect of grade level and task type on query characteristics and click behavior. Early findings show statistical significance across the three tasks in relation to query characteristics and between younger and older children in relation to query entry duration, count of web pages visited and count of result pages clicked on in SERPs. Our study confirms findings reported in previous research, including large-scale search logs studies, and reveals new findings in some areas.

Results retrieved by Google on fifteen search queries formulated by middle school children were examined for readability based on Google Reading Level filter (Basic, Intermediate, Advanced). Three hundred retrieved results (links, snippets, and corresponding Web page texts) were analyzed for readability. Google's assigned reading levels were aggregated at the query level and across the queries and averaged using percentages. The readability scores and grade levels calculated for these results using the Flesch Reading Ease and Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level were averaged at the query level and across the queries and compared to Google's reading levels. On most queries, a mismatch between Google's assigned reading levels and the Flesch scores/grade levels was found. The Flesch formulae predicted that a high number of results Google retrieved on the queries were Fairly Difficult, Difficult, or Very Confusing to children in middle grades. A fair number of results Google retrieved did not have assigned reading levels. Implications are made for Google's reading algorithm, as well as for teachers, parents, and school librarians in guiding children's use of Google.

This study employed benchmarking and intellectual relevance judgment in evaluating Google, Yahoo!, Bing, Yahoo! Kids, and Ask Kids on 30 queries that children formulated to find information for specific tasks. Retrieved hits on given queries were benchmarked to Google's and Yahoo! Kids' top-five ranked hits retrieved. Relevancy of hits was judged on a graded scale; precision was calculated using the precision-at-ten metric (P@10). Yahoo! and Bing produced a similar percentage in hit overlap with Google (nearly 30%), but differed in the ranking of hits. Ask Kids retrieved 11% in hit overlap with Google versus 3% by Yahoo! Kids. The engines retrieved 26 hits across query clusters that overlapped with Yahoo! Kids' top-five ranked hits. Precision (P) that the engines produced across the queries was P = 0.48 for relevant hits, and P = 0.28 for partially relevant hits. Precision by Ask Kids was P = 0.44 for relevant hits versus P = 0.21 by Yahoo! Kids. Bing produced the highest total precision (TP) of relevant hits (TP = 0.86) across the queries, and Yahoo! Kids yielded the lowest (TP = 0.47). Average precision (AP) of relevant hits was AP = 0.56 by leading engines versus AP = 0.29 by small engines. In contrast, average precision of partially relevant hits was AP = 0.83 by small engines versus AP = 0.33 by leading engines. Average precision of relevant hits across the engines was highest on two-word queries and lowest on one-word queries. Google performed best on natural language queries; Bing did the same (P = 0.69) on two-word queries. The findings have implications for search engine ranking algorithms, relevance theory, search engine design, research design, and information literacy. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The purpose of this Panel is to discuss and elaborate on testing and evaluation challenges facing the designers of new and novel information systems for children. Since 2002, ASIST has hosted 16 papers, panels, and posters on information retrieval systems, digital libraries, and user interfaces for children, but very little discussion has been devoted to methodological challenges.

Describes four graphical preliminary task-based models of ten Arabic-speaking children, ages 6-10, based on their interaction with the International Children's Digital Library (ICDL). Data generated from a previous study (Bilal & Bachir, 2007b) were coded and analyzed to generate the models. Seven modes of behavior characterized children's interaction: Start, Recognize, Browse, Differentiate, Read, Explore, and Finish. Each mode is associated with moves based on task characteristics. The models were constructed using the general model developed by Bilal, Sarangthem, & Bachir (2008), which was partially informed by the works of Ellis (1989), Ellis & Haugan (1997), Choo, Detlor, & Turnball (2000), and Marchionini (1995). New patterns of behavior that are missed in these works were identified (Explore and Read). The models lack a Search mode that characterized children's keyword searching. The ICDL allowed entry of Arabic script in the search box, but failed to retrieve Arabic books by keyword. Children's behavior that combined linear and non-linear progression and the core iterative processes that occurred between certain modes of behavior and varied by task provide additional perspectives for understanding information seeking behavior within the specific context of a small and well structured Web space such as the ICDL.

Emerging technologies, including Web 2.0, are offering new opportunities and possibilities for youth to create, organize, represent content, read and learn, exchange and share information, and to fulfill a need to communicate with others. MySpace, YouTube, Google Video, blogs, podcasts, del.icio.us, and Flickr offer seamless functionalities and capabilities that young users find fascinating. Virtual environments available for children, preteens, and teens are growing in popularity. Children of various ages are contributing to the Web not only by creating content, but also by tagging information to represent content.

Eleven middle school children were involved in designing interfaces for Web search engines. Children were given the role of “designers” of the interfaces rather than “reactionaries” to existing ones. Using a participatory approach, children created eleven paper prototypes for Web search engines based on their needs and knowledge structure and they transcribed the purposes of these interfaces. The prototypes were analyzed in relation to content-related spaces, specific spaces, general spaces, instruction spaces, and other spaces. Children's comments about the purposes of the interfaces were analyzed in terms of functionality and visual design. This study describes the prototypes children created and highlights the need for designing Web search engine interfaces that provide high usability for children and with children.

Eleven middle school children constructed hierarchical maps for two science categories selected from two Web directories, Yahooligans! and KidsClick! For each category, children constructed a pair of maps: one without links and one with links. Forty-four maps were analyzed to identify similarities and differences. The structures of the maps were compared to the structures employed by the directories. Children were able to construct hierarchical maps and articulate the relationships among the concepts. At the global level (whole map), children's maps were not alike and did not match the structures of the Web directories. At the local levels (superordinate and subordinate), however, children shared similarities in the conceptual configurations, especially for the concrete concepts. For these concepts, substantial overlap was found between the children's structures and those employed in the directories. For the abstract concepts the configurations were diverse and did not match those in the directories. The findings of this study have implications for design of systems that are more supportive of children's conceptual structures.

The Panel discusses the background, the need, and the requirements for designing and developing enabling information systems to assist students in their inquiry-based learning school projects.

This study examined the success and information seeking behaviors of seventh-grade science students and graduate students in information science in using Yahooligans! Web search engine/directory. It investigated these users' cognitive, affective, and physical behaviors as they sought the answer for a fact-finding task. It analyzed and compared the overall patterns of children's and graduate students' Web activities, including searching moves, browsing moves, backtracking moves, looping moves, screen scrolling, target location and deviation moves, and the time they took to complete the task. The authors applied Bilal's Web Traversal Measure to quantify these users' effectiveness, efficiency, and quality of moves they made. Results were based on 14 children's Web sessions and nine graduate students' sessions. Both groups' Web activities were captured online using Lotus ScreenCam, a software package that records and replays online activities in Web browsers. Children's affective states were captured via exit interviews. Graduate students' affective states were extracted from the journal writings they kept during the traversal process. The study findings reveal that 89% of the graduate students found the correct answer to the search task as opposed to 50% of the children. Based on the Measure, graduate students' weighted effectiveness, efficiency, and quality of the Web moves they made were much higher than those of the children. Regardless of success and weighted scores, however, similarities and differences in information seeking were found between the two groups. Yahooligans! poor structure of keyword searching was a major factor that contributed to the "breakdowns" children and graduate students experienced. Unlike children, graduate students were able to recover from "breakdowns" quickly and effectively. Three main factors influenced these users' performance: ability to recover from "breakdowns", navigational style, and focus on task. Children and graduate students made recommendations for improving Yahooligans! interface design. Implications for Web user training and system design improvements are made.

This article presents the third part of a research project that investigated the information-seeking behavior and success of seventh-grade science children in using the Yahooligans! Web search engine/directory. In parts 1 and 2, children performed fully assigned tasks to pursue in the engine. In the present study, children generated their tasks fully. Children's information seeking was captured from the cognitive, physical, and affective perspectives using both quantitative and qualitative inquiry methods. Their information-seeking behavior and success on the fully self-generated task was compared to the behavior and success they exhibited in the two fully assigned tasks. Children were more successful on the fully self-generated task than the two fully assigned tasks. Children preferred the fully self-generated task to the two fully assigned tasks due to their ability to find the information sought and satisfaction with search results rather than the nature of the task in itself (i.e., self-generated aspect). Children were more successful when they browsed than when they searched by keyword on the three tasks. Yahooligans! design, especially its poor keyword searching, contributed to the breakdowns children experienced, implications for system design improvement and Web training are discussed.

This study involved eleven seventh-grade children in designing interfaces for Web search engines that meet their needs. Using a participatory approach, children drew interfaces and articulated their purposes. The layouts of these interfaces varied, but the features/capabilities described in them were similar. These were, keyword searching with instructions; natural language/phrase. . .

This study investigated the information-seeking behavior of middle school students and graduate students in using the Yahooligans! Web search engine/directory to find the correct answer to a fact-finding search task. It analyzed and compared the overall patterns of both student groups' Web traversal behaviors, including searching moves, browsing moves, backtracking moves, looping moves, target location and deviation moves, and the...

This study compared retrieved results, relevance ranking, and overlap across Google, Yahoo!, Bing, Yahoo Kids!, and Ask Kids on 15 queries constructed by middle school children. Queries included one word, two words, and multiple words/phrases/natural language, and the results were benchmarked against Google and Yahoo Kids! top 5 and top 10 retrieved results using a new relevance ranking metric. Yahoo! and Bing yielded similar results on all queries, but their relevance ranking differed on one-word queries. Ask Kids outperformed Yahoo Kids! on all queries, and a modest percentage of results had the same relevance ranking as Google. Yahoo Kids! and Ask Kids returned unique results that were not retrieved by the other three engines on the first results page. Yahoo! and Bing produced the highest percentage in overlap with Google followed by Ask Kids. Implications are made for children and mediators concerning the use of search engines on children's queries.

This paper presents an empirical model of Arabic-speaking children's interaction with the International Children's Digital Library (ICDL). The model is based on data collected from ten children ages 6--10 who interacted with the ICDL to find information for assigned and self-generated tasks. Two contexts influenced children's information seeking behavior: 1. the non-naturalistic laboratory environment where they used the ICDL as volunteers rather than as part of their everyday life or as a requirement for an assignment, and 2. the international and multicultural nature of the ICDL that provided access to an Arabic book collection, but did not support analytical searching in Arabic. The model presents 7 modes that characterized children's information seeking behavior and the range of moves associated with them. Underlying the behavior is the children's information need and their affective states that consisted of uncertainty and anxiety in the beginning and certainty and satisfaction upon completing the tasks.

Today's digital information environment is rich with varied types of information that is available anytime, anywhere at a user's fingertips. While children and young adults constitute a high percent of the online population worldwide and are being characterized as “savvy,” or “born digital,” there is a need to examine how what has been considered a “distraction” in using the web can be transformed into valuable information that these young users are enable to capture and use at a later time. Existing models of information behavior in traditional environments may allow us to predict certain aspects of young users' information seeking. However, most of these models do not account for information discovery or information encountering that occurs throughout the information seeking process. In this panel, researchers will discuss the changing nature of teaching, learning, and capturing young users' information behaviors in the “I” digital environment. They will propose ways for developing holistic understanding of young users' information behavior processes that encapsulate information discovery and digital inquiry.

Developing digital information technologies appropriate for children can be challenging, particularly since young people have their own interests, abilities, curiosities, and information needs that can be continually changing. Young people are not “just short adults” but an entirely different user population with their own culture, norms and complexities. With the emergence of children as important consumers of digital information, their role in the design of new technologies has been maximized. The speakers will explore national and international digital libraries that have been designed for children using innovative applications of technologies. In addition, they will discuss challenges and issues in designing digital information for young people.