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A composition-spread Cu-Zr thin film library with Zr contents from 2.5 up to 6.5 at.% was synthesized by magnetron sputtering on a thermally oxidized Si wafer. The compositional and microstructural variations of the Cu-Zr thin film across the composition gradient were examined using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and high-resolution scanning and transmission electron microscopy of cross-sections fabricated by focused ion beam milling. Composition-dependent hardness and elastic modulus values were obtained by nanoindentation for measurement areas with discrete Zr contents along the composition gradient. Similarly, the electrical resistivity was investigated by 4-point resistivity measurements to study the influence of Zr composition and microstructural changes in the thin film. Both, the mechanical and electrical properties reveal a significant increase in hardness and resistivity with increasing Zr content. The trends of the mechanical and functional properties are discussed with respect to the local microstructure and composition of the thin film library.

A combinatorial science approach is utilized to study the microstructural and mechanical properties of metastable copper‑tungsten solid solutions. Lateral compositional gradient (also called composition-spread) samples were deposited by simultaneously sputtering copper and tungsten targets positioned obliquely at opposite ends of a silicon substrate. The chemical composition of the film varies continuously along its length from 12 to 45 atomic % copper and has a nominal thickness of 1 μm. Nanoindentation was performed to measure the hardness and elastic modulus of the film. Grain size and solid solution strengthening models are applied to interpret the hardness of the film, though a simple rule of mixtures is found to give a more satisfactory fit to the data. The elastic modulus of the film is consistently below that predicted by the rule of mixtures. X-ray diffraction revealed plane spacing less than that predicted by Vegard's law as well as three chemical compositions exhibiting enhanced long-range order. Transmission electron microscopy analysis confirms that the film consists of a single metastable body centred cubic solid solution where the lattice spacing and grain size depend on chemical composition.

The size dependence of the mechanical behavior of a single crystalline equiatomic FeCrCoMnNi single phase high entropy alloy was studied using in situ SEM microcompression. Electron back-scattered diffraction was used in conjunction with high-resolution scanning electron microscopy to identify the dominant slip system activated for accommodating plastic flow. The scaling of the yield strength with the size of the micropillar is discussed in comparison with the size dependence observed in face-centered and body-centered cubic single crystalline metals.

Based on a combination of micropillar compression experiments and modelling of the secondary cell wall (cw) using continuum micromechanics, the shear yield stress of the polymer matrix is identified for both normal and compression wood of Norway spruce. It is shown that the model is able to capture the differences in mechanical properties between the two tissues based on the knowledge of composition of the samples, microfibril angle, as well as phase properties on the nanometer scale. By testing an isolated piece of the cell wall with a homogeneous and uniaxial stress field on the micrometer scale and using the micromechanical model to determine average stress fields on the nanometer scale, it is possible to identify the shear yield stress of the polymer matrix in wood, which was found to be in the range of 14.9–17.5 MPa for normal and compression wood. It was shown that this corresponds to a stress in the lignin phase of approx. 17 MPa. This combined study thus demonstrates a new approach for validating ...

The mechanical behavior of Cu–Cr nanolayered films and an alloy film of nominal composition Cu 20 Cr 80 at.% was studied by microcompression testing at temperatures from 25 °C to 300 °C. Comparing nanolayered films, plastic deformation and failure occurred at consistently higher stress levels in the film with the smaller layer thicknesses. Plasticity in the nanolayered films always initiated in the softer Cu layers followed by a finite strain-hardening response in the stress–strain curves. Failure indicated by a strain-softening response following the higher peak strength due to shearing and tearing at columnar boundaries of Cr was observed in the nanolayered films at 25 °C and 100 °C. A transition from shearing and crack formation across the Cu–Cr interfaces leading to anomalous grain growth or beading of the nanocrystalline Cu layers was observed at elevated temperatures of 200 °C and 300 °C. On the other hand, the Cu 20 Cr 80 at.% alloy film exhibited failure by columnar buckling consistently at elevated temperatures, but shearing promoted by buckling at the highest strengths among the films at ambient temperature.

The microthermomechanical behavior of a precipitation-hardenable Ni-48Ti-25Pd (at.%) shape memory alloy has been investigated as a function of temperature. Micropillars were fabricated within a large 〈145〉-oriented grain and compressed in situ in the SEM at elevated temperatures corresponding to the martensite and austenite phase transformation temperatures. The precipitation-strengthened alloys exhibited stable pseudoelastic behavior with little or no residual strains when near the transformation temperatures. In the plastic regime, slip was observed to occur via pencil glide, circumventing the fine scale precipitates along multiple slip planes.

The yield strengths and deformation mechanisms of Cu–Cr nanolayered and alloyed thin films were studied by microcompression testing at elevated temperatures. The mechanical response of the films with alternating layers of Cu and Cr with sub-100 nm interlayer thicknesses and alloyed films of the same average composition was compared to determine the role of the interfaces on deformation. Higher resistance to plastic flow at elevated temperatures was exhibited by the nanolayered films with smaller interlayer thickness among the layered films, while the alloyed film revealed an anomalous increase in strength with temperature exhibiting a deformation mechanism similar to the pure Cr film.

Nanolaminates of Cu and W with a bilayer thickness ratio of 1:1 and individual layer thicknesses of 5, 20 and 100 nm were studied by using elevated temperature microcompression. Failure in all the multilayers with different interlayer thicknesses occurs by rupture of the W interlayers, resulting in local strain softening and shearing at ambient temperature and lateral plastic flow of the Cu layers confined between the harder W layers at lower stresses with increasing testing temperatures.

The mechanical properties and deformation mechanisms of nano-porous ZnO thin films electrodeposited on glass substrates were determined by nanoindentation and in situ scanning electron microscope (SEM) micropillar compression. The intragranular nature of the nanoscale porosity within the individual mono-crystals of the films was probed at nano- and micro-scales for determining their mechanical response. The hardness (3.5 GPa) and reduced elastic modulus (65 GPa) of the compact thin film were found to decrease by increasing the intragranular porosity controlled by the electrochemical deposition potential of ZnO. Focused ion beam (FIB) cross-sections of residual imprints reveal that the decrease in hardness and elastic modulus observed is primarily due to compaction of the nano-porous structure. In situ SEM compression of FIB machined micropillars reveals brittle fracture and near theoretical strengths in the compact film (~ 2 GPa), and a higher flaw tolerant response despite lower failure stress in the most porous film.

Friction and wear minimizing coatings are crucial for applications in combustion engines and medical implants. Their performance is typically limited by mechanical failure especially due to local overload. In this work, the contact damage creation, evolution, and final morphology of hydrogenated diamond-like carbon (DLC)-coated titanium (Ti) substrates are investigated. The influence of the DLC film thickness and the elastic–plastic deformation of the Ti on the contact damage are studied by microindentation and static finite-element analysis. Film thickness, indenter radius, and applied load as well as the elastic–plastic deformation of the Ti are shown to significantly affect contact damage. A failure plot is presented with the location of first failure in the DLC and compared to the experimental observation. In addition, a case study with variable fracture toughness of the DLC and its influence on the failure plot is shown. The stress distribution in the DLC follows a transition from a membrane-like to a plate-like deformation behavior upon increasing the DLC film thickness. Thin DLC films reveal increased cracking in the inner zone of the indent, while thicker DLC films reveal pronounced edge cracking. These edge cracks were correlated to pop-ins in force–displacement curves upon microindentation. Finally, a film thickness optimization process is presented for hard and brittle films on soft and ductile metallic substrates.

The deformation and failure mechanism of a multilayered thin film consisting of alternating soft Cu and hard TiN interlayers has been studied by in situ SEM compression of micro-pillars and finite element simulations. While the yielding of the multilayer is governed by the 'size-dependent' strength of Cu, the failure was found to occur by shearing of the columnar grains of TiN. At elevated temperatures of 200 and 400 °C, the yielding of the multilayers is governed by the stress-assisted diffusion of the Cu interlayers, which coalesce into microcrystals and grow into larger faceted crystals.

Indentation fracture experiments on aluminium-titanium nitride nanolaminates were conducted both inside and outside of a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Remarkably, indentation fracture toughness increases with increasing strength for bilayer thicknesses less than 10 nm. In addition, slower strain rates favour formation of lateral cracking while increasing rates favour formation of radial cracks. SEM movies show that an increase in radial crack length does not occur during the unloading cycle; this is due to flow of aluminium into the cracks during unloading and is a form of self-healing which should be applicable to metal-ceramic nanolaminates in general.

The elevated temperature mechanical response of a Zr-based bulk metallic glass (BMG) was examined using in situ microcompression in a scanning electron microscope at temperatures up to 387 °C. The flow stress was found to remain constant with temperature at ∼2 GPa below the glass transition temperature, T g . The magnitude of the stress drops/serrations in the stress–strain curve was found to increase with temperature. Above T g , plastic flow was observed to be homogeneous without any shear band formation.

The mechanical integrity of the interface between two adjacent cells in spruce late wood was studied by uniaxial compression of focused ion beam machined micro-pillars of double cell walls (DCW) containing the compound middle lamella (CML). The DCW reveals a lower yield strength and stiffness than the secondary cell wall (S2). Failure occurs by tearing of the interface between the first (S1) and second layers (S2) of the secondary cell wall exposing the internal arrangement of the microfibrils, while the CML remains intact.

In this article, a mathematical algorithm is derived to accurately determine the critical load of indentation for the initiation of cracks on the surface of a hard coating on a soft substrate, based on the measurement of the diameter of circumferential cracks in micro-indentation impressions. The critical load required for the initiation of the first crack predicted using this technique is shown to be in good agreement with experimental results, indicating the feasibility of the technique proposed. The rationality of the approach proposed was further explored by investigating the fracture mechanism of the surface in a multilayer-coated surface using a finite element model, which was developed with the parameterised modelling approach, in combination with the cohesive-zone model.

Diamond ⟨100⟩- and ⟨111⟩-oriented nanopillars were fabricated by focused ion beam (FIB) milling from synthetic single crystals and compressed using a larger diameter diamond punch. Uniaxial compressive failure was observed via fracture with a plateau in maximum stress of ∼0.25 TPa, the highest uniaxial strength yet measured. This corresponded to maximum shear stresses that converged toward 75 GPa or ∼ G/7 at small sizes, which are very close to the ultimate theoretical yield stress estimate of G/2π.

The elevated temperature indentation response of a Zr-based bulk metallic glass (BMG) was examined using a novel in situ SEM indentation system modified with tip and sample heating. Hardness was found to linearly increase with temperature from 7 GPa at 25 °C to 7.6 GPa at 200 °C, while the modulus remained constant within measurement accuracy. Adhesion between indenter and the BMG was observed to increase with increasing temperature. Both the number and pointed morphology of the surface shear offset displacements were found to decrease with increasing temperature. Conversely, the magnitude of the load drops/serrations in the load displacement curve was found to increase dramatically with temperature. The transitions from smooth to serrated flow were observed to fall within the temperature–strain rate ranges observed by other researchers in uniaxial compression.

In situ Raman micro-pillar compression has been shown to be capable of determining the onset of plastic deformation as well as characterizing plastic deformation and fracture. The compression experiments were carried out on 10 µm diameter single crystalline GaAs micro-pillars at room temperature. The deformation and fracture events were revealed by a shift in position and broadening of the characteristic Raman peak in agreement with the load drops measured by the load cell and post-mortem observations from scanning electron microscopy.

Accurately predicting the failure of multilayered surface systems, including coatings on tools or products, is of significance for all of the parties concerned within the chain of design, manufacturing and use of a product. Previous modeling work has, however, been focused largely on the effect of individual parameters rather than on the performance of a multilayered system as a whole. Design and manufacture of multilayered surface systems, currently, still relies largely on experiments and failure tests. A parameterized approach which considers geometrical, material, interfacial and loading variables, processing history, thermal effects, surface-failure modeling, etc. has therefore been developed to address the situation in order to be able to improve the efficiency and accuracy of the analysis and design of multilayered coating-systems. Material property values for the hardened case of the substrate are described with a function of the hardened depth and defined with a field method. Initial residual stresses calculated using a newly developed theoretical model are incorporated into the model as initial stress conditions. Thermo-mechanical coupled modeling is incorporated into the model so as to be able to consider temperature effects. These are associated with a cohesive-element modeling approach, which has been used to predict indentation-induced crack initiation and propagation within the coating layer. The comparison of experimental results with those of numerical modeling affords excellent agreement. The parameterized modeling method developed allows for the parameters to be changed easily during a series analysis. Combined with the capability of the prediction of cracking of the coatings, the developed method/model provides an efficient way for investigating the effects of these parameters on the behavior of multilayered systems, which is demonstrated by the analysis of three cases of the coated tool steels (H11): (i) a substrate without being pre-heat-treated; and (ii) two substrates with a shallow and a deep hardened-case, respectively, (both are treated by plasma-nitriding). The results showed that the case-hardening of a substrate has a significant influence on the performance of the surface system with coating, especially on its load-bearing capacity and the cracking of the coating.

The deformation and failure of the secondary cell wall of Spruce wood was studied by in-situ SEM compression of micropillars machined by the focused ion beam technique. The cell wall exhibited yield strength values of approximately 160 MPa and large scale plasticity. High resolution SEM imaging post compression revealed bulging of the pillars followed by shear failure. With additional aid of cross-sectional analysis of the micropillars post compression, a model for deformation and failure mechanism of the cell wall has been proposed. The cell wall consists of oriented cellulose microfibrils with high aspect ratio embedded in a hemicellulose-lignin matrix. The deformation of the secondary wall occurs by asymmetric out of plane bulging because of buckling of the microfibrils. Failure of the cell wall following the deformation occurs by the formation of a shear or kink band.

Fibre deformations such as kinks and micro-compressions are significant parameters in determining the quality of industrial pulps. Undoubtedly, very little information has been obtained so far on fibre deformation because it is very tedious to handle the specimens. In this study, a novel in situ scanning electron microscope (SEM) micro-indentation technique was adopted for the first time to study the deformation of single industrial pulp fibres in the transverse direction. A one-to-one correspondence between load drops in load-displacement curve and cell wall deformation was obtained by using the SEM video sequence recorded during micro-indentation. The cell wall deformation occurred by 'elastic' sinking-in and lateral bulging of the microfibrils. Finally, the critical load (stress) required to initiate a crack in the cell wall was measured for different unbleached pulp fibres.

We demonstrate that irradiation may enhance the plasticity in metallic glasses by increasing the free-volume content via micropillar compression experiments on an ion-irradiated bulk metallic glass (BMG). Results show that irradiation decreases the flow stress and enhances the shear band formation by lowering the magnitude of stress serrations in plastic flow regime. These results highlight that amorphous alloys can mitigate the deleterious affects of severe ion irradiation as compared to their crystalline counterparts.

The deformation and fracture response of a bulk metallic glass (BMG) post-annealing above the glass transition temperature is examined. The toughness of the glass-matrix composite exhibits a sharp transition beyond a critical volume fraction of crystallization to values as low as that of brittle silicate glass. Instrumented indentation tests supplemented by impact tests were used to study this ductile to brittle transition exhibited by the partially crystallized samples. Indentation on the anneal-embrittled specimens shows lateral cracks in addition to cracks along the corners. The applicability of the Poisson's ratio-toughness correlation with respect to partially crystallized samples is also investigated.

Journal of Materials Research, 24 (8), ISSN:0884-2914, ISSN:2044-5326

An experimental study to ascertain the ductile-to-brittle transition (DBT) in a bulk metallic glass (BMG) was conducted. Results of the impact toughness tests conducted at various temperatures on as-cast and structurally relaxed Zr-based BMG show a sharp DBT. The DBT temperature was found to be sensitive to the free-volume content in the alloy. Possible factors that result in the DBT were critically examined. It was found that the postulate of a critical free volume required for the amorphous alloy to exhibit good toughness cannot rationalize the experimental trends. Likewise, the Poisson’s ratio–toughness correlations, which suggest a critical Poisson’s ratio above which all glasses are tough, were found not to hold good. Viscoplasticity theories, developed using the concept of shear transformation zones and which describe the temperature and strain rate dependence of the crack-tip plasticity in BMGs, appear to be capable of capturing the essence of the experiments. Our results highlight the need for a more generalized theory to understand the origins of toughness in BMGs.

Uniaxial compression experiments on 0.3, 1 and 3 mu m diameter micropillars of a Zr-based bulk metallic glass in as-cast, shot-peened and structurally relaxed conditions were conducted. Shear band formation and stable propagation is observed to be the plastic deformation mode in all cases, with no detectable difference in yield strength according to either size or condition. The limitations of uniaxial compression tests in assessing the influence of various material conditions on plasticity, when it is inhomogeneous in nature, are illustrated.

The dry sliding friction coefficient μ and the wear volume loss W, in a zirconium-based bulk metallic glass (BMG) under high-frequency (50 Hz) reciprocating conditions, were investigated with the objective of assessing the influence of free volume and crystallization on the wear behavior of amorphous metals. The BMG samples were annealed either below the glass transition temperature Tg to induce structural relaxation and hence reduce the free volume that controls plasticity through shear-band formation or above Tg to crystallize the amorphous BMG prior to wear testing. Results show that the wear behavior of both the as-cast and relaxed glasses was dominated by the oxidation of the surface layers. A sharp transition in the contact electrical resistance complemented by a marked increase in μ was noted. This was attributed to the formation of a thick tribo film with high oxygen concentration and its subsequent delamination. The μ values, before as well as after the transition, in the relaxed glasses were similar to those for the as-cast alloy. However, a gradual decrease in W with annealing temperature was observed. A good correlation between W and nanohardness was noted, implying that the intrinsic hardness in the BMGs controlled the wear rate.

Nanocrystalline and ultrafine-grained materials show enhanced strain rate sensitivity (SRS) in comparison to their coarse grained counterparts. Majority of SRS measurements on nanocrystalline thin films reported in literature have focused on nanoindentation-based approaches. In this paper, micropillar strain rate jump tests were demonstrated on an electrodeposited nanocrystalline nickel film from 25 to 100 °C. SRS exponent, m, and activation volume, V, values were determined as a function of temperature. The measured values were found to be in good agreement with previously reported literature on bulk and nanoindentation measurements. Apparent activation energy for deformation was found to be about 100 kJ/mol, which is close to that for grain boundary diffusion in nickel. Grain boundary sliding was observed in the deformed pillars from scanning electron microscopy images.

An experimental investigation into the role of the excess free volume that is created during plastic deformation in strain softening of amorphous metals was conducted. A well-defined and large plastic zone was created through the spherical indentation of a bonded interface of a Zr-based bulk metallic glass (BMG). Elastic modulus and hardness mapping of the deformation zone was conducted through nanoindentation. Experimental observations show that the load, P, vs. depth of penetration, h, curves obtained from the deformation zone are decorated with discrete displacement jumps, which are otherwise absent in the undeformed material. The prior-deformed zone underneath the large indenter was also found to be softer than that far away from the indenter. A simple and approximate analysis shows that the strain softening of the BMG is related to the excess free volume that is created during prior deformation. Contrary to general expectation, differential scanning calorimetry of the deformed material indicates a reduced free volume. These results can be explained by postulating the formation of nanovoids due to the coalescence of the excess free volume. These nanovoids, in turn, lower the stress required for plastic deformation through shear bands, which leads to the observation of reduced hardness.

The variation of impact toughness, Γ, of a Zr41.2Ti13.75Cu12.5Ni10Be22.5 (Vitreloy-1) bulk metallic glass (BMG) within the temperature range of 123–423 K was evaluated by using an instrumented Charpy impact testing machine, in order to examine if the BMGs exhibit ductile-to-brittle transition (DBT) that is seen in rapidly quenched glasses. Results show an abrupt reduction in Γ when the testing temperature is lowered to below 150 K, implying that the BMGs are also prone to the DBT. Fractographic observations indicate a transition in the fracture mode; from ductile vein-like morphology above DBT to a cleavage-dominant fracture mode below it. Complimentary Vickers indentation measurements show no variation in hardness with temperature. However, the shear banded plastic regions that are typically seen around the indents were observed to be completely absent around the indents that were made at low temperatures, indicating that the inhomogeneous plasticity mediated by shear bands becomes inoperative below a critical temperature resulting in the DBT. This observation suggests that the minimum amount of free volume required for extensive plasticity (and hence high toughness) in metallic glasses is strongly dependent on the temperature. Testing of the structurally relaxed samples (through annealing at 530 K for 2.5 h that induces severe embrittlement at room temperature) at 423 K reveal almost complete recovery of Γ, supporting this hypothesis.

By designing advantageous cellular geometries and combining the material size effects at the nanometer scale, lightweight hybrid microarchitectured materials with tailored structural properties are achieved. Prior studies reported the mechanical properties of high strength cellular ceramic composites, obtained by atomic layer deposition. However, few studies have examined the properties of similar structures with metal coatings. To determine the mechanical performance of polymer cellular structures reinforced with a metal coating, 3D laser lithography and electroless deposition of an amorphous layer of nickel-boron (NiB) is used for the first time to produce metal/polymer hybrid structures. In this work, the mechanical response of microarchitectured structures is investigated with an emphasis on the effects of the architecture and the amorphous NiB thickness on their deformation mechanisms and energy absorption capability. Microcompression experiments show an enhancement of the mechanical properties with the NiB thickness, suggesting that the deformation mechanism and the buckling behavior are controlled by the brittle-to-ductile transition in the NiB layer. In addition, the energy absorption properties demonstrate the possibility of tuning the energy absorption efficiency with adequate designs. These findings suggest that microarchitectured metal/polymer hybrid structures are effective in producing materials with unique property combinations.

Nanoindentation experiments were conducted on a Ni+ ion-irradiated Zr-based bulk metallic glass (BMG). The irradiation was carried out using 2.5, 5, 10 and 15 MeV ions and a flux of similar to 10(16) ions/cm(2). Post mortem imaging of the indents reveals a transition in the deformation mechanism of the irradiated regions from heterogeneous shear banding to homogeneous flow. Additionally, the load-displacement curves exhibit a transition from serrated to continuous flow with increasing severity of irradiation damage. The stress-strain response obtained from micro-pillar compression experiments complements the indentation response exhibiting a decrease in the flow stress and an `apparent' strain hardening at the lowest irradiation damage investigated, which is not observed in the as-cast alloy. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The mechanical behavior of single crystalline hydroxyapatite is examined through instrumented nano- and microindentation experiments on prism and basal planes. The results indicate that the c-axis orientation is stiff and hard, and significant anisotropy in properties was found. Nanoscale plasticity is observed in the form of pile-up along the nanoindentation edges and manifests as discrete displacement bursts in the load vs. depth of penetration curves. Toughness also shows significant anisotropy and is lower compared with the values reported for the polycrystalline hydroxyapatite.

The constraint factor, C , given by the hardness to the yield strength ratio and an indirect measure of the pressure sensitivity of plastic flow in amorphous alloys, of a Zr-based bulk metallic glass was measured as a function of temperature. Results show that, contrary to expectations, C increases linearly from ∼3.2 to 3.5 within the 300–525 K range. Gradual transition in the shear band-dominated deformation mechanism was suggested as a possible reason for the observed increase in C .

We report on a comprehensive structural and nanoindentation study of nanolaminates of Al2O3 and ZnO synthesized by atomic layer deposition (ALD). By reducing the bilayer thickness from 50 nm to below 1 nm, the nanocrystal size could be controlled in the nanolaminate structure. The softer and more compliant response of the multilayers as compared to the single layers of Al2O3 and ZnO is attributed to the structural change from nanocrystalline to amorphous at smaller bilayer thicknesses. It is also shown that ALD is a unique technique for studying the inverse Hall-Petch softening mechanism (E. Voce and D. Tabor, J. Inst. Metals 79(12), 465 (1951)) related to grain size effects in nanomaterials. (C) 2012 American Institute of Physics. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4711767]

Grazing incidence X-ray diffraction (GIXRD) and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) combined with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) were employed to study the microstructure evolution and stress development in the nanocrystalline Cu100−X-ZrX (2.5 at ≤ x ≤ 5.5 at) alloy thin films. Small Zr additions to Cu led to significant lattice parameter anisotropy in the as-deposited Cu-Zr thin films both due to macroscopic lattice strain and stacking faults in the Cu matrix. Strain free lattice parameters obtained after the XRD stress analysis of Cu-Zr thin films confirmed formation of a supersaturated substitutional Cu-Zr solid solution. For the first time, the study of film microstructure by XRD line profile analysis (XLPA) confirmed progressive generation of dislocations and planar faults with increasing Zr composition in Cu-Zr alloy films. These microstructural changes led to the generation of tensile stresses in the thin films along with considerable stress gradients across the films thicknesses which are quantified by the traditional dψhkl−Sin2ψ and GIXRD stress measurement methods. The origin of tensile stresses and stress gradients in the Cu-Zr film are discussed on the basis of film growth and heterogeneous microstructure with changing Zr composition. © 2021