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Introduction: The African Goat Improvement Network Image Collection Protocol (AGIN-ICP) is an accessible, easy to use, low-cost procedure to collect phenotypic data via digital images. The AGIN-ICP collects images to extract several phenotype measures including health status indicators (anemia status, age, and weight), body measurements, shapes, and coat color and pattern, from digital images taken with standard digital cameras or mobile devices. This strategy is to quickly survey, record, assess, analyze, and store these data for use in a wide variety of production and sampling conditions. Methods: The work was accomplished as part of the multinational African Goat Improvement Network (AGIN) collaborative and is presented here as a case study in the AGIN collaboration model and working directly with community-based breeding programs (CBBP). It was iteratively developed and tested over 3 years, in 12 countries with over 12,000 images taken. Results and discussion: The AGIN-ICP development is described, and field implementation and the quality of the resulting images for use in image analysis and phenotypic data extraction are iteratively assessed. Digital body measures were validated using the PreciseEdge Image Segmentation Algorithm (PE-ISA) and software showing strong manual to digital body measure Pearson correlation coefficients of height, length, and girth measures (0.931, 0.943, 0.893) respectively. It is critical to note that while none of the very detailed tasks in the AGIN-ICP described here is difficult, every single one of them is even easier to accidentally omit, and the impact of such a mistake could render a sample image, a sampling day's images, or even an entire sampling trip's images difficult or unusable for extracting digital phenotypes. Coupled with tissue sampling and genomic testing, it may be useful in the effort to identify and conserve important animal genetic resources and in CBBP genetic improvement programs by providing reliably measured phenotypes with modest cost. Potential users include farmers, animal husbandry officials, veterinarians, regional government or other public health officials, researchers, and others. Based on these results, a final AGINICP is presented, optimizing the costs, ease, and speed of field implementation of the collection method without compromising the quality of the image data collection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The African Goat Improvement Network (AGIN) is a collaborative group of scientists focused on genetic improvement of goats in small holder communities across the African continent. The group emerged from a series of workshops focused on enhancing goat productivity and sustainability. Discussions began in 2011 at the inaugural workshop held in Nairobi, Kenya. The goals of this diverse group were to: improve indigenous goat production in Africa; characterize existing goat populations and to facilitate germplasm preservation where appropriate; and to genomic approaches to better understand adaptation. The long-term goal was to develop cost-effective strategies to apply genomics to improve productivity of small holder farmers without sacrificing adaptation. Genome-wide information on genetic variation enabled genetic diversity studies, facilitated improved germplasm preservation decisions, and provided information necessary to initiate large scale genetic improvement programs. These improvements were partially implemented through a series of community-based breeding programs that engaged and empowered local small farmers, especially women, to promote sustainability of the production system. As with many international collaborative efforts, the AGIN work serves as a platform for human capacity development. This paper chronicles the evolution of the collaborative approach leading to the current AGIN organization and describes how it builds capacity for sustained research and development long after the initial program funds are gone. It is unique in its effectiveness for simultaneous, multi-level capacity building for researchers, students, farmers and communities, and local and regional government officials. The positive impact of AGIN capacity building has been felt by participants from developing, as well as developed country partners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Breeding programs involving either centralized nucleus schemes and/or importation of exotic germplasm for crossbreeding were not successful and sustainable in most Africa countries. Community-based breeding programs (CBBPs) are now suggested as alternatives that aim to improve local breeds and concurrently conserve them. Community-based breeding program is unique in that it involves the different actors from the initial phase of design up until implementation of the programs, gives farmers the knowledge, skills and support they need to continue making improvements long into the future and is suitable for low input systems. In Ethiopia, we piloted CBBPs in sheep and goats, and the results show that they are technically feasible to implement, generate genetic gains in breeding goal traits and result in socio-economic impact. In Malawi, CBBPs were piloted in local goats, and results showed substantial gain in production traits of growth and carcass yields. CBBPs are currently being integrated into goat pass-on programs in few NGOs and is out-scaled to local pig production. Impressive results have also been generated from pilot CBBPs in Tanzania. From experiential monitoring and learning, their success depends on the following: 1) identification of the right beneficiaries; 2) clear framework for dissemination of improved genetics and an up/out scaling strategy; 3) institutional arrangements including establishment of breeders' cooperatives to support functionality and sustainability; 4) capacity development of the different actors on animal husbandry, breeding practices, breeding value estimation and sound financial management; 5) easy to use mobile applications for data collection and management; 6) long-term technical support mainly in data management, analysis and feedback of estimated breeding values from committed and accessible technical staff; 7) complementary services including disease prevention and control, proper feeding, and market linkages for improved genotypes and non-selected counterparts; 8) a system for certification of breeding rams/bucks to ensure quality control; 9) periodic program evaluation and impact assessment; and 10) flexibility in the implementation of the programs. Lessons relating to technical, institutional, community dynamics and the innovative approaches followed are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community-based breeding programs (CBBPs) have shown, at pilot scale, to be effective and beneficial in achieving genetic progress and in improving livelihoods of smallholder communities. In Ethiopia 134 sheep and goat CBBPs were operational producing their own improved rams and bucks. Based on experience the implementation of further programs is possible with appropriate private and public support. A different challenge is the efficient dissemination of the improved genetics produced in current CBBPs to create population-wide economic impact. We present a framework applied to the Ethiopian Washera sheep breed to meet this challenge. We propose the establishment of a genetic improvement structure that supports a meat commercialization model based on the integration of community-based breeding program cooperatives, client communities and complementary services such as fattening enterprises. We calculated that the recently established 28 community-based breeding programs in the Washera breeding tract can provide genetically improved rams to 22% of the four million head. To reach the whole population 152 additional CBBPs are needed. We simulated the genetic improvements obtainable in the current 28 CBBPs assuming realized genetic progress in CBBPs of a similar breed and calculated the expected additional lamb carcass meat production after 10 years of selection to be 7 tons and the accumulated discounted benefit 327 thousand USD. These benefits could be increased if the CBBPs are linked to client communities by providing them with improved rams: additional meat production would be 138 tons with a value of 3,088 thousand USD. The total meat production of the existingWashera CBBPs was calculated at 152 tons and the joint meat production of CBBPs if integrated with client communities would be 3,495 tons. A full integration model, which includes enterprises purchasing lambs for fattening, can produce up to 4,255 tons of meat. We conclude that Washera CBBPs cooperatives can benefit from a higher level of organization to produce population-wide genetic improvement and economic benefits. Unlike in the dairy and chicken industries, for low input sheep and goat smallholder systems the proposed commercialization model puts breeder cooperatives at the center of the operation. Cooperatives need to be capacitated and supported to become fully functional business ventures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objectives of the current study were to estimate the genetic parameters and genetic trends for growth traits, and to assess inbreeding levels of Abera sheep under community-based breeding programs (CBBPs) in Ethiopia. General linear model consisting of the fixed effects of sex, breeder cooperative, season and birth type was used to analyze growth traits. Variance components and genetic parameters were estimated within each breeder cooperative following univariate animal model based on the restricted maximum likelihood method. All fixed effects influenced (P < 0.05) the growth traits. Multivariate analysis was also employed to compute correlation estimates among growth traits. Based on the best fitted models, the direct heritability for weaning weight (WWT) and six-month weight (SMWT) in the six breeder cooperatives were in the ranges of 0.12 ± 0.12–0.38 ± 0.17 and 0.20 ± 0.10–0.49 ± 0.01, respectively. Range of positive genetic progress in WWT (0.15–0.44 kg) and SMWT (0.21–0.57 kg) was achieved in Abera sheep breeder cooperatives during selection years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: In recent times, community‐based breeding programs (CBBPs) have been advocated as the best strategy for genetic improvement of local breeds in smallholder farms in developing countries. Since 2009, CBBPs have been implemented for Ethiopian Bonga and Menz sheep to improve growth rates resulting in significant genetic gains in 6‐month weights. With the hypothesis that selection could be impacting their genomes, we systematically screened for possible genome changes in the two breeds by analyzing 600K BeadChip genotype data of 151 individuals (with the highest breeding values for 6‐month weights) from CBBP flocks against 98 individuals from non‐CBBP flocks. We observed no differences in genetic diversity and demographic dynamics between CBBP and non‐CBBP flocks. Selection signature analysis employing ROH, logistic regression genome‐wide association study , FST, XP‐EHH and iHS revealed 5 (Bonga) and 11 (Menz) overlapping regions under selection, that co‐localized with QTLs for production (body size/weight, growth, milk yield), meat/milk quality, and health/parasite resistance, suggesting that the decade‐long selection has likely started to impact their genomes. However, genome‐wide genetic differentiation between the CBBP and non‐CBBP flocks is not yet clearly evident. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The objectives of the study were to evaluate reproductive performance and selection response through genetic trend of community-based breeding programs (CBBPs) of Bonga sheep. Methods: Reproduction traits data were collected between 2012 and 2018 from Bonga sheep CBBPs. Phenotypic performance was analyzed using the general linear model procedures of Statistical Analysis System. Genetic parameters were estimated by univariate animal model for age at first lambing (AFL) and repeatability models for lambing interval (LI), litter size (LS), and annual reproductive rate (ARR) traits using restricted maximum likelihood method of WOMBAT. For correlations bivariate animal model was used. Best model was chosen based on likelihood ratio test. The genetic trends were estimated by the weighted regression of the average breeding value of the animals on the year of birth/lambing. Results: The overall least squares mean±standard error of AFL, LI, LS, and ARR were 375± 12.5, 284±9.9, 1.45±0.010, and 2.31±0.050, respectively. Direct heritability estimates for AFL, LI, LS, and ARR were 0.07±0.190, 0.06±0.120, 0.18±0.070, and 0.25±0.203, respectively. The low heritability for both AFL and LI showed that these traits respond little to selection programs but rather highly depend on animal management options. The annual genetic gains were -0.0281 days, -0.016 days, -0.0002 lambs and 0.0003 lambs for AFL, LI, LS, and ARR, respectively. Conclusion: Implications of the result to future improvement programs were improving management of animals, conservation of prolific flocks and out scaling the CBBP to get better results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Sheep farmers have local knowledge about helminth parasites of sheep in Ethiopia. • Farmers in community-based breeding programs use anthelmintics more frequently. • Sheep producers prefer anthelmintics over other options for control of nematode parasites. • Ethnoveterinary methods are applied in only one community. Gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) remain one of the main health and production constraints of sheep globally. Considering alternatives to anthelmintics in control of GIN of sheep has become important mainly due to development of anthelmintic resistance. In this study, we used a questionnaire survey in combination with participatory epidemiology methods, ranking and scoring, with the objectives of (1) understanding local sheep disease problems related to GIN in community-based breeding programs (CBBP) in Bonga and Horro of Ethiopia, compared to neighboring communities not involved in CBBP, and (2) assessing current practices and preferences in control of GIN of sheep in both types of communities. The most important disease conditions of sheep in Bonga CBBP with weighed ranks of 1 to 3 were coenurosis, diarrhea and coughing. The corresponding sheep disease conditions in Horro CBBP were coughing, diarrhea and bottle jaw. Diarrhea and bottle jaw presumably are related to gastrointestinal nematodes. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants are widely used in Bonga while the knowledge is at risk of loss in Horro. Respondents in non CBBP and CBBP communities did not differ (p > 0.05) regarding most of the plant species used frequently in control of GIN in Bonga. There was significant difference (p < 0.001) in frequency of anthelmintic use between CBBP and non CBBP communities for each of the two locations, Bonga and Horro. In Horro, CBBP farmers considered anthelmintics as more sustainable GIN control option than non CBBP farmers (p < 0.001). This can be attributed to lack of awareness pertinent to development of anthelmintic resistance. In conclusion, local knowledge, practices and preferences of farmers should be considered when designing and implementing control programs for gastrointestinal nematodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Different breeding programs were simulated and evaluated for Borana goat in pastoral production system. • Inclusion of milk yield and growth trait in the selection index resulted in a significant economic benefit. • Further optimization of mating ratio and improving kid survival were also resulted in a substantial profit. • Dispersed nucleus with 577 does in the nucleus and 3579 does in the base has been recommended. • The suggested breeding program resulted in accumulated total profit of US$14,776 over 10 years. The study simulated different potential breeding programs to design the optimal breeding structure and operational management structure for Borana goat. It evaluated different scenarios using ZPLAN+ software to maximize the genetic gain, discounted profit and to determine the optimum size of the base population for a community-based breeding program (CBBP) nucleus. The study analyzed the different combinations of objective traits in the index, assessed the effect of changing the breeding buck to doe ratio, evaluated the impact of improved kid survival, and determined the optimum size of the base population for a CBBP. A two-tier breeding program based on 577 does in the CBBP and 1,006 does in the surrounding base flocks was assumed, where selected CBBP bucks were disseminated to the base populations. Combining the weight of kids at six months (SMWT) and the lactation milk yield of dams (LMY) in the selection index resulted in a genetic gain doe−1 generation−1 of 0.13 kg, 0.58 kg, 0.02 and 0.004 for SMWT, LMY, the number of kids that survived to market age (NKS) and the number of kids born (NKB), respectively. This also generated a total discounted profit of US$5.76 doe−1 over 10 year investment period. This result was 30 percent higher than when LMY was evaluated separately and 225.7 percent higher than when SMWT was evaluated separately. The addition of NKB and NKS traits in the selection index did not significantly change the genetic progress and the profit. However, further optimization of the combined SMWT and LMY by improving mating ratio only, and a combined improvement in mating ratio and kid survival rate resulted in a substantial increase in profit to US$11.13 doe−1 and US$15.58 doe−1, respectively over 10 year investment period. The maximum discounted profit was attained when the base population size was 3,579 breeding does. This resulted in accumulated total profit of US$14,776 over the 10 year investment period. A two-tier dispersed CBBP with a unit size of about 577 does in the nucleus and 3,579 does in the base is recommended. In Borana goat community-breeding program, breeding buck need to be selected using an index combining at least own live weight and dam milk yield performance. Essential requirements for ensuring the sustainability of such programs are also discussed in the paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]