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Trained immunity is a long-term increase in responsiveness of innate immune cells, induced by certain infections and vaccines. During the last 3 years of the COVID-19 pandemic, vaccines that induce trained immunity, such as BCG, MMR, OPV, and others, have been investigated for their capacity to protect against COVID-19. Further, trained immunity-inducing vaccines have been shown to improve B and T cell responsiveness to both mRNA- and adenovirus-based anti-COVID-19 vaccines. Moreover, SARS-CoV-2 infection itself induces inappropriately strong programs of trained immunity in some individuals, which may contribute to the long-term inflammatory sequelae. In this review, we detail these and other aspects of the role of trained immunity in SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19. We also examine the learnings from the trained immunity studies conducted in the context of this pandemic and discuss how they may help us in preparing for future infectious outbreaks. Trained immunity-inducing vaccines have been suggested to protect against heterologous infections, including COVID-19. This review presents the studies performed during the pandemic that have investigated the effects of vaccines such as BCG, OPV, MMR, and others against COVID-19. In addition, data are reviewed that suggest that COVID-19 itself and the novel COVID-19 vaccines can also induce trained immunity programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to assess the effect of mofetil mycophenolate (MMF), an inhibitor of lymphocyte proliferation, on lung function and skin in patients with systemic sclerosis (SSc)-associated interstitial lung disease (SSc-ILD). In this retrospective study, we reviewed the medical files of 10 patients with SSc-ILD (eight females, 10 patients with diffuse SSc; mean age, 59.7 ± 12.7 years; disease duration, 7.7 ± 4.7 years). Patients were treated with MMF (2 g/day) for 12 months. Lung function tests and the modified Rodnan total skin score (mRTSS) were assessed at baseline and at 12 months. Results were analyzed by paired Student’s t test. There was a significant increase in forced vital capacity and a nonsignificant increase in carbon monoxide diffusing capacity at 12 months in patients on MMF ( p = 0.04 and 0.66, respectively). There was no effect on mRTSS. MMF stabilizes lung function of SSc-ILD after 12 months of treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]