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Background Representing the pathological extreme pursuit of muscularity, muscle dysmorphia (MD) is characterized by a pervasive belief or fear around insufficient muscularity and an elevated drive for muscularity. Despite evidence of elevated body image-related concerns among sexual minority populations, little is known about the degree of muscle dysmorphia (MD) symptoms among sexual minorities, particularly based on Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI) scores. The objective of this study was to examine the nature and severity of MD symptoms in cisgender sexual minority men and women and provide community norms of the MDDI for these populations. Methods Data from participants in The PRIDE Study, an existing study of health outcomes in sexual and gender minority people from the United States, were examined. Participants included cisgender gay men (N = 1090), cisgender bisexual plus (bisexual, pansexual, and/or polysexual) men (N = 100), cisgender lesbian women (N = 563), and cisgender bisexual plus women (N = 507). We calculated means, standard deviations (SD), and percentiles for the MDDI total and subscale scores for cisgender sexual minority men and women. We compared MDDI scores by sexual orientation using linear regression models, both unadjusted and adjusted for sociodemographics. Results Overall, the sample was 85.2% White, 3.0% Asian or Pacific Islander, 2.0% Black, 0.5% Native American, 3.9% multiracial, and 6.6% Hispanic/Latino/a. The mean age was 38.6 (SD = 14.3) and 69.4% had a college degree or higher. Means (SD) for the MDDI total score were 27.4 (7.7) for cisgender gay men, 26.4 (6.4) for cisgender bisexual plus men, 24.3 (6.1) for cisgender lesbian women, and 24.6 (5.5) for cisgender bisexual plus women. There were no significant differences in MDDI scores between cisgender gay and bisexual plus men, or between cisgender lesbian women and bisexual plus women in unadjusted or adjusted models. Conclusions These normative data provide insights into the experience of MD symptoms among cisgender sexual minority men and women and can aid researchers and clinicians in the evaluation of MD symptoms and interpretation of MDDI scores in sexual minority populations.

Author(s): McGeough, Briana L | Advisor(s): Aguilera, Adrian | Abstract: INTRODUCTION: Sexual minority (e.g., lesbian, bisexual) women experience depression and alcohol use disorder at approximately twice the rates of heterosexual women. Though stigma serves as a common explanation for these disparities, less is known about the mechanisms through which stigma may contribute to these disparities. Past research has found that the strategies that individuals use to regulate their emotions in response to experiences of stigma may influence their depression symptoms and alcohol use symptoms. Among general samples, alcohol use and suppression have been linked to increased risk for depression symptoms whereas seeking social support following a stigma-related stressor has been linked to reduced risk for depression symptoms. A limited body of past research has found constructs similar to suppression and social support to be associated with greater or fewer alcohol use symptoms, respectively, at the same level of alcohol use.The current dissertation proposes and validates a model to test whether greater levels of alcohol use, greater levels of suppression, and lower levels of social support explain 1) sexual minority women’s disproportionally high rates of depression symptoms/alcohol use symptoms and 2) the relationship between stigma-related stressors and depression symptoms/alcohol use symptoms for sexual minority women. (a) A greater number of stigma-related stressors are hypothesized to be associated with higher levels of suppression, higher levels of alcohol use, and lower levels of social support, (b) which are hypothesized to be associated with a greater number of depression symptoms. (c) Higher levels of alcohol use are hypothesized to be associated with a greater number of alcohol use symptoms; (d) higher levels of suppression are hypothesized to weaken this relationship, whereas higher levels of social support are hypothesized to strengthen this relationship.METHODS: A national sample of 1,773 sexual minority women participated in an online survey in 2017 through the PRIDE Study. Respondents self-reported demographic information, number of experiences of stigma, levels of alcohol use, suppression, and social support, and number of depression and alcohol use symptoms. Structural equation modeling was used to test hypotheses a to d (detailed above). Chi-square, RMSEA, CFI, and TLI were all employed to assess model fit. RESULTS: (a) As hypothesized, a greater number of stigma-related stressors was associated with lower levels of social support (standardized coefficient estimate, β = -0.185; p l 0.001), but contrary to hypothesis, the number of stigma-related stressors was not significantly associated with levels alcohol use or suppression. (b) As hypothesized, lower levels of social support (β = -0.210; p l 0.001), higher levels of alcohol use (β = 0.105; p l 0.001), higher levels of suppression (β = 0.169; p l 0.001), and greater number of stigma-related stressors (β = 0.220; p l 0.001) were all significantly associated with a greater number of depression symptoms. (c). As hypothesized, higher levels of alcohol use (β = 0.790; p l 0.001) were significantly associated with a greater number of alcohol use symptoms, but contrary to hypothesis, greater numbers of stigma-related stressors did not predict a greater number of alcohol use symptoms. (d) Contrary to hypothesis, there was no evidence that relationship between alcohol use and alcohol use symptoms was strengthened by higher levels of suppression or weakened by higher levels of social support. All fit statistics exceeded established standards. DISCUSSION: Stigma-related stressors were found to be associated with depression symptoms, but not alcohol use symptoms, among sexual minority women. Stigma-related stressors may cause sexual minority women to deplete their social support resources, potentially increasing risk for depression symptoms; this mechanism does not appear to drive alcohol use symptoms. This finding suggests that cultivating social support networks that are responsive to experiences of stigma may be an important component of depression treatments for sexual minority women. Though the cross-sectional design of this study limits the potential for causal inference, this study makes an important contribution to the literature by utilizing a largescale, national sample of sexual minority women to evaluate potential mechanisms driving both depression symptoms and alcohol use symptoms among this vulnerable population. Future research should use longitudinal methods to improve potential for causal inference. Future research should also identify mechanisms common to depression symptoms and alcohol use symptoms to facilitate the development of interventions for co-occurring depression and alcohol use disorders for this vulnerable population.

Purpose Cisgender bisexual plus (including bisexual, pansexual, and polysexual) women and men experience unique health concerns including eating disorders. The purpose of this study was to develop community norms for eating disorder attitudes and disordered eating behaviors in cisgender bisexual plus women and men using the Eating Disorders Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q). Methods Participants were cisgender bisexual plus women (n = 462) and men (n = 93) participants in The PRIDE Study, an existing study of sexual and gender minority people. Results Mean and standard deviation of EDE-Q scores among cisgender bisexual plus women and men, respectively, were: Global (1.75 ± 1.26, 1.56 ± 1.18), Restraint (1.34 ± 1.44, 1.42 ± 1.53), Eating Concern (0.96 ± 1.13, 0.63 ± 0.96), Weight Concern 2.27 ± 1.55, 1.89 ± 1.46), and Shape Concern 42 ± 1.62, 2.30 ± 1.57). Among cisgender bisexual plus women and men, respectively, 27.5% and 22.6% scored in the clinically significant range on the Global score. Bisexual plus women and men reported any occurrence (≥ 1/28 days) of dietary restraint (19.3%, 23.7%), objective binge episodes (11.1%, 10.8%), excessive exercise (4.5%, 5.4%), self-induced vomiting (1.7%, 0.0%), and laxative misuse (0.4%, 1.1%), respectively. A lower percentage of age-matched cisgender bisexual plus women (18–25 years) reported any occurrence of objective binge episodes, self-induced vomiting, laxative misuse, and excessive exercise than previously published in young women. Age-matched cisgender bisexual plus men (18–26 years) reported higher weight concern subscale scores than previously published in young men. Conclusions These norms should aid clinicians in applying and interpreting the EDE-Q scores of cisgender bisexual plus women and men. Level of evidence Level V: cross-sectional descriptive study

BACKGROUND: Sexual and gender minorities (SGM) experience higher rates of depression and anxiety, which are linked to higher rates of discrimination and victimization. SGM individuals may conceal their SGM identities to decrease discrimination and victimization exposure; however, these experiences still occur, and concealment itself is often associated with greater anxiety and depression. However, it remains unclear whether lifetime victimization and identity concealment moderate the effect of day-to-day discrimination, which we evaluated in the current study using ecological momentary assessment (EMA). METHODS: Fifty SGM participants (Mage=21.82, SD=4.70; 84% White) completed baseline assessment (e.g., concealment and lifetime victimization) followed by EMA of daily discrimination and anxious and depressed mood for 14 days. RESULTS: As hypothesized, daily discrimination predicted momentary increases in anxious and depressed mood, b = .34, p < .001. Notably, these effects were more pronounced among individuals who reported higher levels of identity concealment, b = .25, p < .001, and previous SGM-based victimization experiences (marginally), b = .18, p = .05. Main effects of cumulative lifetime victimization and identity concealment, measured at baseline, were associated with higher ratings of anxious and depressed mood over the two-week study. DISCUSSION: While identity concealment may reduce exposure to discrimination and victimization, we found that concealment and prior victimization predict heightened reactivity to daily discrimination experiences. Additional research is needed to further explicate real-time effects of minority stress exposure, and to develop interventions that may mitigate risk among SGM individuals with prior victimization exposure and higher levels of identity concealment in particular.

Sexual minority (i.e., nonheterosexual) individuals are at greater risk than heterosexual individuals for substance use and poor mental health attributed to exposure to minority stress (Meyer, 2003). Minority stress is stress that places an additional burden on sexual minority people over and above the stress experienced by heterosexual people. Sexual minority men may also be subject to minority stress related to intersecting identities or individual characteristics (e.g., HIV status, race). This study obtained initial feedback about the AWARENESS intervention from sexual minority men living with HIV who use substances and determined the feasibility of the intervention to address minority stress related to intersecting identities. AWARENESS is a 9-session cognitive-behavioral intervention targeting minority stress as a driver of greater substance use and poorer mental and physical health. Ten sexual minority men living with HIV who were episodic substance users (>1 episode of illicit drug use or binge drinking in the previous 3 months) began the intervention. Feedback on the intervention was obtained through open-ended interviews analyzed using thematic analysis and Likert scale questionnaires about experiences with the intervention. Therapists tracked identities discussed in relation to minority stress to evaluate feasibility of AWARENESS to address intersectional minority stress. Participants identified they gained cognitive-behavioral skills to cope with intersectional minority stress and described destigmatization and integration of identities. Participants discussed an average of 3.2 identity characteristics in addition to sexual minority status in relation to intervention content. This study lays the groundwork for additional testing of this intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Background: Transgender, nonbinary, and gender-expansive (TGE) people experience pregnancy. Quantitative data about pregnancy intentions and outcomes of TGE people are needed to identify patterns i...

Despite increasing empirical interest in muscle dysmorphia (MD), a dearth of research has assessed this construct in sexual minority populations. In particular, the psychometric properties of one of the most widely used measures of MD symptoms-the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI)-have not been evaluated in sexual minority populations despite emerging evidence suggesting differential risk for MD symptoms across sexual orientation groups. In this study, we assessed the psychometric properties of the MDDI in a sample of 715 cisgender gay men and 404 cisgender lesbian women ages 18-50 years who participated in a large-scale national longitudinal cohort study of sexual and gender minority adults. The factor structure of the MDDI was examined in each sample using a two-step, split-sample exploratory and confirmatory factor analytic approach. Exploratory factor analysis supported a three-factor structure in both samples, which were confirmed by confirmatory factor analysis. Moreover, results supported the internal consistency reliability and convergent validity of the MDDI subscales in both samples. Cumulatively, these findings suggest that the MDDI is an appropriate measure of MD symptoms among cisgender gay men and cisgender lesbian women.

Purpose Representing the pathological extreme pursuit of muscularity, muscle dysmorphia (MD) is characterized by a pervasive belief or fear around insufficient muscularity and an elevated drive for muscularity. Despite evidence of heightened body image-related concerns among gender minority populations, little is known about the degree of MD symptoms among gender minorities, particularly based on Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI) scores. The objective of this study was to assess community norms of the MDDI in gender-expansive people, transgender men, and transgender women. Method Data from participants in The PRIDE Study, an existing study of health outcomes in sexual and gender minority people, were examined. We calculated means, standard deviations, and percentiles for the MDDI total and subscale scores among gender-expansive people (i.e., those who identify outside of the binary system of man or woman; n = 1023), transgender men (n = 326), and transgender women (n = 177). The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to assess group differences and post hoc Dunn’s tests were used to examine pairwise differences. Results Transgender men reported the highest mean MDDI total score (30.5 ± 7.5), followed by gender-expansive people (27.2 ± 6.7), then transgender women (24.6 ± 5.7). The differences in total MDDI score were driven largely by the Drive for Size subscale and, to a lesser extent, the Functional Impairment subscale. There were no significant differences in the Appearance Intolerance subscale among the three groups. Conclusions Transgender men reported higher Drive for Size, Functional Impairment, and Total MDDI scores compared to gender-expansive people and transgender women. These norms provide insights into the experience of MD symptoms among gender minorities and can aid researchers and clinicians in the interpretation of MDDI scores among gender minority populations., Plain English summary Transgender people have a gender identity or expression that differs from what is typically associated with the sex assigned to them at birth. Gender-expansive refers to gender identities that do not fit within the binary (woman/man) gender system. We asked gender-expansive people, transgender men, and transgender women in The PRIDE Study to fill out a widely used survey about muscle dysmorphia, a condition in which a person worries they are not muscular enough. The results showed that transgender men had the highest muscle dysmorphia symptoms, followed by gender-expansive people, then transgender women. These findings can help clinicians and researchers in interpreting a survey assessing muscle dysmorphia in gender-expansive people, transgender men, and transgender women. Characterizing muscle dysmorphia symptoms in these populations is an important step to improve mental wellness among transgender and gender-expansive people.

Background Sexual and gender minority (SGM; i.e., non-heterosexual and transgender or gender-expansive, respectively) people experience physical health disparities attributed to greater exposure to minority stress (experiences of discrimination or victimization, anticipation of discrimination or victimization, concealment of SGM status, and internalization of stigma) and structural stigma. Purpose To examine which components of minority stress and structural stigma have the strongest relationships with physical health among SGM people. Methods Participants (5,299 SGM people, 1,902 gender minority individuals) were from The Population Research in Identity and Disparities for Equality (PRIDE) Study. Dominance analyses estimated effect sizes showing how important each component of minority stress and structural stigma was to physical health outcomes. Results Among cisgender sexual minority women, transmasculine individuals, American Indian or Alaskan Native SGM individuals, Asian SGM individuals, and White SGM individuals a safe current environment for SGM people had the strongest relationship with physical health. For gender-expansive individuals and Black, African American, or African SGM individuals, the safety of the environment for SGM people in which they were raised had the strongest relationship with physical health. Among transfeminine individuals, victimization experiences had the strongest relationship with physical health. Among Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish individuals, accepting current environments had the strongest relationship with physical health. Among cisgender sexual minority men prejudice/discrimination experiences had the strongest relationship with physical health. Conclusion Safe community environments had the strongest relationships with physical health among most groups of SGM people. Increasing safety and buffering the effects of unsafe communities are important for SGM health.

Sexual and gender minority (SGM) people experience significant disparities in mental health and substances use disorders. This study reached out to mental health professionals (MHPs) who treat SGM ...

Sexual and gender minority (SGM) people—including members of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer communities—are understudied and underrepresented in research. Current sexual orientation and gender identity (SOGI) questions do not sufficiently engage SGM people, and there is a critical gap in understanding how SOGI questions reduce inclusion and accurate empirical representation. We conducted a qualitative study to answer the question, “For SGM people, what are the major limitations with current SOGI questions?” Focus groups probed reactions to SOGI questions adapted from prior national surveys and clinical best practice guidelines. Questions were refined and presented in semi-structured cognitive interviews. Template analysis using a priori themes guided analysis. There were 74 participants: 55 in nine focus groups and 19 in cognitive interviews. Participants were diverse: 51.3% identified as gender minorities, 87.8% as sexual minorities, 8.1% as Hispanic/Latinx, 13.5% as Black or African-American, and 43.2% as Non-white. Two major themes emerged: (1) SOGI questions did not allow for identity fluidity and complexity, reducing inclusion and representation, and (2) SOGI question stems and answer choices were often not clear as to which SOGI dimension was being assessed. To our knowledge, this represents the largest body of qualitative data studying SGM perspectives when responding to SOGI questions. We present recommendations for future development and use of SOGI measures. Attention to these topics may improve meaningful participation of SGM people in research and implementation of such research within and for SGM communities. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s10508-020-01810-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Youth homelessness has been demonstrated to disproportionately affect sexual and gender minority (SGM) youth compared to heterosexual cisgender peers. In this context, we aimed to compare health risks between service-seeking SGM and heterosexual cisgender youth experiencing homelessness, including harmful risks stemming from substance use and severity of symptoms of mental health disorders. We recruited 100 racially diverse, unstably housed participants aged 18–24 who access services at an urban non-profit organization in San Francisco, CA. Data analysis included 56 SGM participants who identified as gay, lesbian, bisexual, pansexual, unsure, transgender, and nongender, and 44 heterosexual cisgender participants. In contrast to previous studies reporting significantly higher frequency of substance use and more severe symptoms of depression, generalized anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder among SGM youth compared to heterosexual cisgender peers, many of these health disparities were not observed in our diverse study population of service-seeking youth. Furthermore, with the exception of methamphetamine, SGM participants did not exhibit greater harmful risks resulting from substance use, such as health, social, financial, and legal complications. We discuss the reduced burden of health disparities between SGM and heterosexual cisgender youth in our service-seeking study population within the context of gender- and sexuality-affirming programming offered at the partnering community organization. We conclude that longitudinal data on these tailored community-level interventions are needed to further explore the reduced burden of health disparities observed among service-seeking SGM youth experiencing homelessness in San Francisco in order to continue supporting pathways out of homelessness for youth of all sexual and gender identities nationwide.

Purpose Gender-expansive individuals (i.e., those who identify outside of the binary system of man or woman) are a marginalized group that faces discrimination and have a high burden of mental health problems, but there is a paucity of research on eating disorders in this population. This study aimed to describe the community norms for the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) in gender-expansive populations. Methods The participants were 988 gender-expansive individuals (defined as neither exclusively cisgender nor binary transgender) from The PRIDE study, an existing longitudinal cohort study of health outcomes in sexual and gender minority people. Results We present the mean scores, standard deviations, and percentile ranks for the Global score and four subscale scores of the EDE-Q in this group as a whole and stratified by sex assigned at birth. Gender-expansive individuals reported any occurrence (≥1/28 days) of dietary restraint (23.0%), objective binge episodes (12.9%), excessive exercise (7.4%), self-induced vomiting (1.4%), or laxative misuse (1.2%). We found no statistically significant differences by sex assigned at birth. Compared to a prior study of transgender men and women, there were no significant differences in eating attitudes or disordered eating behaviors noted between gender-expansive individuals and transgender men. Transgender women reported higher Restraint and Shape Concern subscale scores compared to gender-expansive individuals. Compared to a prior study of presumed cisgender men 18–26 years, our age-matched gender-expansive sample had higher Eating, Weight, and Shape Concern subscales and Global Score, but reported a lower frequency of objective binge episodes and excessive exercise. Compared to a prior study of presumed cisgender women 18–25 years, our age-matched gender-expansive sample had a higher Shape Concern subscale score, a lower Restraint subscale score, and lower frequencies of self-induced vomiting, laxative misuse, and excessive exercise. Conclusions Gender-expansive individuals reported lower Restraint and Shape Concern scores than transgender women; higher Eating, Weight, and Shape Concern scores than presumed cisgender men; and lower Restraint but higher Shape Concern scores than presumed cisgender women. These norms can help clinicians in treating this population and interpreting the EDE-Q scores of their gender-expansive patients.

Appearance and performance-enhancing drugs and supplements (APEDS) are used to enhance muscle growth, athletic performance, and physical appearance. The aim of this study was to examine the lifetime use of APEDS and associations with eating disorder and muscle dysmorphia symptoms among cisgender sexual minority people.Participants were cisgender sexual minority people (1090 gay men, 100 bisexual plus men, 564 lesbian women, and 507 bisexual plus women) recruited from The PRIDE Study in 2018 who reported lifetime APEDS use and completed the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire (EDE-Q) and the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI). Regression analyses stratified by gender and sexual orientation examined associations of any APEDS use with EDE-Q and MDDI scores.Lifetime APEDS use was common across the four groups of cisgender sexual minority people (44% of gay men, 42% of bisexual plus men, 29% of lesbian women, and 30% of bisexual plus women). Protein supplements and creatine supplements were the most commonly used APEDS. Any APEDS use was associated with higher EDE-Q scores on one or more subscales in all sexual minority groups. Further, any APEDS use was associated with higher MDDI Total Scores in all groups; any APEDS use was associated with all MDDI subscale scores in cisgender gay men only.APEDS use is common and associated with eating disorder and muscle dysmorphia symptoms in sexual minority men and women, thus highlighting the importance of assessing for these behaviors and symptoms among these populations in clinical settings.

Sexual minority (i.e., non-heterosexual) individuals experience poorer mental and physical health, accounted for in part by the additional burden of sexual minority stress occurring from being situated in a culture favoring heteronormativity. Informed by previous research, the purpose of this study was to identify the relationship between sexual minority stress and leukocyte gene expression related to inflammation, cancer, immune function, and cardiovascular function. Sexual minority men living with HIV who were on anti-retroviral medication, had viral load

Objective The current study examined the frequency with which randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of behavioral and psychological interventions for anxiety and depression include data pertaining to participant sexual orientation and nonbinary gender identities. Method Using systematic review methodology, the databases PubMed and PsycINFO were searched to identify RCTs published in 2004, 2009, and 2014. Random selections of 400 articles per database per year (2,400 articles in total) were considered for inclusion in the review. Articles meeting inclusion criteria were read and coded by the research team to identify whether the trial reported data pertaining to participant sexual orientation and nonbinary gender identities. Additional trial characteristics were also identified and indexed in our database (e.g., sample size, funding source). Results Of the 232 articles meeting inclusion criteria, only 1 reported participants' sexual orientation, and zero articles included nonbinary gender identities. A total of 52,769 participants were represented in the trials, 93 of which were conducted in the United States, and 43 acknowledged the National Institutes of Health as a source of funding. Conclusions Despite known mental health disparities on the basis of sexual orientation and nonbinary gender identification, researchers evaluating interventions for anxiety and depression are not reporting on these important demographic characteristics. Reporting practices must change to ensure that our interventions generalize to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons. (PsycINFO Database Record

The Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) is a measure of eating disorder attitudes and disordered eating behaviors. Prior descriptive studies of the EDE-Q for women either did not assess or omitted reporting sexual orientation. This study's objective was to assess eating disorder attitudes and disordered eating behaviors as measured by the EDE-Q among cisgender lesbian women. We present mean scores and standard deviations for the EDE-Q among 563 self-identified cisgender lesbian women ages 18-77 who were recruited from The PRIDE Study in 2018. Among cisgender lesbian women, 3.4 % scored in the clinically significant range on the Restraint, 1.6 % on the Eating Concern, 9.1 % on the Weight Concern, 13.9 % on the Shape Concern, and 3.9 % on the Global Score scales of the EDE-Q. We found that 13.5 % of participants reported any occurrence (≥1/28 days) of dietary restriction, 8.7 % for objective binge episodes, 5.3 % for excessive exercise, .4% for self-induced vomiting, and .4% for laxative misuse. Participants reported a current (1.8 %) or lifetime (7.1 %) diagnosis of an eating disorder by a clinician. These EDE-Q descriptive data capture eating disorder attitudes and disordered eating behaviors among cisgender lesbian women and may aid clinicians and researchers in interpreting the EDE-Q in this specific population.

Objective Prior norms of the Eating Disorders Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) among men have not considered sexual orientation. This study's objective was to assess EDE-Q community norms among cisgender gay men. Method Participants were 978 self-identified cisgender gay men from The PRIDE Study recruited in 2018. Results We present mean scores and standard deviations for the EDE-Q among cisgender gay men ages 18-82. Among cisgender gay men, 4.0% scored in the clinically significant range on the global score, 5.7% on the restraint, 2.1% on the eating concern, 10.5% on the weight concern, and 21.4% on the shape concern subscales of the EDE-Q. The global score as well as weight and shape concerns in a young adult subsample (18-26 years) from The PRIDE Study were higher than previously reported norms in young men (Lavender, 2010). Participants reported any occurrence (≥1/28 days) of dietary restraint (19.8%), objective binge episodes (10.9%), excessive exercise (10.1%), laxative misuse (1.1%), and self-induced vomiting (0.6%). Binge eating, excessive exercise, and self-induced vomiting in The PRIDE Study subsample were lower than previously reported in young men. Discussion We provide EDE-Q norms among cisgender gay men, which should aid clinicians and researchers to interpret the EDE-Q scores of cisgender gay men.

Transgender men and women may be at risk for eating disorders, but prior community norms of the Eating Disorders Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) are based on presumed cisgender men and woman and have not intentionally included transgender people. The objective of this study was to develop community norms for eating disorder attitudes and disordered eating behaviors in transgender men and women using the EDE-Q. Participants were 312 transgender men and 172 transgender women participants in The PRIDE Study, an existing cohort study of sexual and gender minority people. We present mean scores, standard deviations, and percentile ranks for the Global score and four subscale scores of the EDE-Q in transgender men and women. Transgender men and women reported any occurrence (≥1/week) of dietary restraint (25.0% and 27.9%), objective binge episodes (11.2% and 12.8%), excessive exercise (8.0% and 8.1%), self-induced vomiting (1.6% and 1.7%), and laxative misuse (.3% and .6%), respectively. Compared to a prior study of presumed cisgender men 18–26 years ( Lavender, De Young, & Anderson, 2010 ), our age-matched subsample of transgender men reported lower rates of objective binge episodes and excessive exercise. Compared to a prior study of presumed cisgender women 18–42 years ( Mond, Hay, Rodgers, & Owen, 2006 ), we found that an age-matched sample of transgender women reported higher rates of dietary restraint but lower rates of excessive exercise. These norms should aid clinicians in applying and researchers in investigating and interpreting the EDE-Q scores of transgender men and women.

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals are at higher risk for substance use and substance use disorders than heterosexual individuals and are more likely to seek substance use treatment, yet sexual orientation and gender identity are frequently not reported in the research literature. The purpose of this study was to identify if sexual orientation and gender identity are being reported in the recent substance use literature, and if this has changed over time.The PsycINFO and PubMed databases were searched for articles released in 2007 and 2012 using the term "substance abuse" and 200 articles were randomly selected from each time period and database. Articles were coded for the presence or absence of sexual orientation and gender identity information.Participants' sexual orientation was reported in 3.0% and 4.9% of the 2007 and 2.3% and 6.5% of the 2012 sample, in PsycINFO and PubMed sample articles, respectively, while non-binary gender identity was reported in 0% and 1.0% of the 2007 sample and 2.3% and 1.9% of the 2012 PsycINFO and PubMed sample articles. There were no differences in rates of reporting over time.Sexual orientation and gender identity are rarely reported in the substance abuse literature, and there has not been a change in reporting practices between 2007 and 2012. Recommendations for future investigators in reporting sexual orientation and gender identity are included.

Objective Sexual and gender minority (SGM) individuals experience elevated rates of minority stress, which has been linked to higher rates of nicotine and substance use. Research on this disparity to date is largely predicated on methodology that is insensitive to within day SGM-based discrimination experiences, or their relation to momentary nicotine and substance use risk. We address this knowledge gap in the current study using ecological momentary assessment (EMA). Method Fifty SGM individuals, between 18 and 45 years of age, were recruited from an inland northwestern university, regardless of their nicotine or substance use history, and invited to participate in an EMA study. Each were prompted to provide data, six times daily (between 10:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m.) for 14 days, regarding SGM-based discrimination, other forms of mistreatment, and nicotine, drug, and alcohol use since their last prompt. Results Discrimination experiences that occurred since individuals' last measurement prompt were associated with greater odds of nicotine and substance use during the same measurement window. Substance use was also more likely to occur in relation to discrimination reported two measurements prior in lagged models. Relative to other forms of mistreatment, discrimination effects were consistently larger in magnitude and became stronger throughout the day/evening. Conclusion This study adds to existing minority stress research by highlighting the both immediate and delayed correlates of daily SGM-based discrimination experiences. These results also contribute to our understanding of daily stress processes and provide insight into ways we might mitigate these effects using real-time monitoring and intervention technology. (PsycINFO Database Record

ObjectivePrevious studies have established a link between childhood abuse and dissociation. Other work has shown childhood abuse increases the likelihood of violent victimization in adulthood. Although it has been posited that dissociation may mediate childhood abuse and adult violent victimization, research investigating this hypothesis is sparse, particularly for extremely vulnerable populations such as homeless and unstably housed individuals. investigated the relationship between childhood abuse and dissociation on violent victimization in a cohort of homeless and unstably housed women. We also assessed whether dissociation mediated childhood abuse and violent victimization in this sample.MethodParticipants were asked at an initial assessment and a 6-month follow-up to report any physical or sexual violence experienced in the previous 6 months. Questionnaires recording history of specific types of childhood abuse, dissociation, and other factors were also recorded at the initial assessment.ResultsHierarchical logistic regression models revealed that childhood sexual abuse (Odds ratio [OR] = 3.10, p < .01) and severe dissociation (OR = 1.99, p < .01) were significantly associated with recent physical violence, and childhood sexual abuse (OR = 3.88, p < .01) and dissociation (OR = 1.87, p < .05) were also associated with recent sexual violence. Dissociation mediated neither childhood abuse on recent physical violence or recent sexual violence.ConclusionDeveloping approaches that effectively identify and treat dissociation as a part of an overall framework of trauma-informed care in homeless and unstably housed women may be an effective way to decrease future physical violence in this vulnerable population. (PsycINFO Database Record

Background Spirituality and religiosity may serve as both a resource and a barrier to HIV prevention with young black men who have sex with men (YBMSM). We examined indices of spirituality/religiosity as correlates of binge drinking, stimulant use, and recent HIV testing in a sample of YBMSM. Methods From 2011–2013, annual venue-based surveys of sexually active YBMSM ages 18–29 were conducted in Dallas and Houston, Texas. Binge drinking and stimulant use were assessed in the past two months. Participants recently tested for HIV (i.e., within the past six months) were compared to those without recent HIV testing (i.e., never tested or tested more than six months ago). Results Among the 1565 HIV-negative or HIV-unknown YBMSM enrolled, more engagement in spiritual and religious activities was associated with greater odds of reporting stimulant use (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] = 1.20; 95% CI = 1.04–1.40) while higher spiritual coping was associated with lower odds of reporting stimulant use (AOR = 0.66; 95% CI = 0.56–0.78). Binge drinking was independently associated with 29% lower odds of recent HIV testing (AOR = 0.71; 95% CI = 0.55–0.92), but lower odds of binge drinking did not mediate the association of engagement in spiritual and religious activities with 27% greater odds of recent HIV testing (AOR = 1.27; 95% CI = 1.11–1.46). Conclusions Among YBMSM, culturally tailored approaches addressing spirituality/religiosity could support prevention of stimulant use and increase HIV testing. In particular, expanded efforts are needed to promote HIV testing in binge drinkers.

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth are at risk for engaging in negative health behaviors and for experiencing at-school victimization. Specific benefits of attending a high school with a gay-straight alliance (GSA), including lower levels of suicidality, have been published; however, it is unclear whether GSAs are related to lower levels of problematic substance use, depressive symptoms, and psychological distress. Using a sample of 145 LGBT youth recruited from college and university organizations for LGBT students, we examined whether attending a high school with a GSA was related to more positive school experiences and mental health outcomes for LGBT youth. The results indicate that youth who attended a high school with a GSA report significantly more favorable outcomes related to school experiences, alcohol use, and psychological distress. The implications of the findings are discussed as they relate to school psychologists. Important limitations of this study are reviewed.

This study examines the mental health characteristics of sexual minority (lesbian, gay, and bisexual, or LGB) veterans, compared these characteristics to those of an existing Veterans Affairs (VA) sample, and examined the relationship between mental health and anxiety around concealment of LGB identity while in the military. Data regarding LGB veterans' (n = 409) military experiences and current mental health were collected via an online survey; comparison data (n = 15,000) were retrieved from a VA data warehouse. LGB veterans were more likely to screen positive for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and alcohol problems than the comparison sample. Anxiety around concealment of one's sexual orientation while in the service was related to current depression and PTSD symptoms.

Background Prior research has found higher rates of mental health problems among sexual minority individuals. We examine treatment-seeking for depression, as well as its relationship with sexual orientation, in a large, multilingual, international sample. Method Participants in an automated, quintilingual internet-based depression screening tool were screened for depression, and completed several background measures, including sexual orientation (with an option to decline to state) and past and current depression treatment seeking. Results 3695 participants screened positive for current or past depression and responded to the sexual orientation question. Those who declined to state their sexual orientation were far less likely to seek any treatment than individuals endorsing any orientation; they were especially unlikely to seek psychotherapy. Individuals identifying as bisexual sought both psychotherapy and alternative treatments at a higher rate than other groups. An interaction was observed between sexual orientation and gender, such that lesbian women were especially likely to have used psychotherapy. Other variables that emerged as significant predictors of treatment-seeking for depression included age and participant's language. Limitations Limitations include possible misinterpretation of translated terms due to regional differences, and possible limits to generalizability due to this study being conducted on the internet. Conclusions Our results suggest that individuals who decline to state their sexual orientation may be more likely to forgo effective treatments for depression. Further studies of depression service utilization should focus on developing treatment modalities that could better engage sexual minority individuals, especially those who are reluctant to disclose their orientation.

Sexual and gender minorities have been shown to have greater rates of mental health, substance use disorders, and specific types of health problems compared to heterosexuals. Among the homeless population in several US urban areas, sexual and gender minorities are overrepresented but few studies have examined the mental and physical health status of homeless sexual and gender minorities, with studies on homeless gender minorities being particularly hard to find. Using survey data obtained from the city and county of San Francisco (2015 Homeless Survey), this study examined differences in causes of homelessness, physical and mental health problems, and domestic violence among homeless sexual and gender minorities and their heterosexual and cisgender (i.e., non-transgender) counterparts, respectively. Lesbians and bisexual women, and gay and bisexual men did not differ from their cisgender heterosexual counterparts. Cisgender men who identified as queer or “other” in response to sexual orientation questions had higher rates of psychiatric problems and posttraumatic stress disorder, while cisgender women who identified as queer or “other” had higher rates of psychiatric problems and drug and alcohol use. Transgender men who were homeless were found to be particularly at risk for physical health problems, mental health problems, and domestic violence or abuse. Transgender women were more likely to report posttraumatic stress disorder. This study suggests that transgender men and cisgender sexual minority men and women who identify as queer or “other” are groups among the homeless that may benefit from increased outreach and services.

Background Stress associated with minority statuses has been linked to mental health disorders. However, research conducted exclusively among impoverished women, a population known to be at risk for poor health owing to overlapping risks, is sparse. We sought to determine if homeless and unstably housed sexual minority (i.e., nonheterosexual) women were at greater psychiatric risk than their heterosexual counterparts. We also sought to determine if racial/ethnic minority and human immunodeficiency virus status contributed to psychiatric risks. Methods Homeless/unstably housed women living in San Francisco between 2008 and 2010 were followed biannually over 3 years. Generalized estimating equation analysis identified significant correlates of any substance use, mood, or anxiety disorder, as well as the total number of psychiatric disorders. Results Among 300 women, 24% reported nonheterosexual identity at the first study visit. Consistent with minority stress theory, lesbian and bisexual identity were associated with higher levels of mental health comorbidity, and bisexual identity was related to greater rates of substance use disorders and mood disorders. Unique to this study, we found that identity assessed 1 or 2 years prior does not predict current substance disorders, but current identity does. In addition, women who were infected with the human immunodeficiency virus also had higher rates of mental health comorbidity and substance use disorders. Contrary to psychosocial stress theory, racial/ethnic minority status was associated with reduced odds of substance use disorder in this population. Recent homelessness was related to greater risk of anxiety disorder. Conclusions Best research and health care practices should include the assessment of sexual orientation and housing status when addressing risks for mental health and substance disorders among low-income women.

Initial interactions between lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) clients and psychotherapists can reveal existing biases from both parties. LGBT clients may have previous experiences with the mental health establishment and legitimate concerns about being pathologized. Psychotherapists may approach clients with openness and acceptance, but are likely to have little training in working with LGBT individuals. In this article, we discuss affirmative practices as a framework for clinicians beginning the intake process with LGBT clients. Through a brief history and overview of LGBT mental health, we provide mental health professionals with an appreciation of the multiple influences on LGBT individuals’ well-being. We then discuss the intake interview process in relation to each subgroup of the LGBT acronym, as each of these four populations face different (yet inter-related) challenges. While there is clearly no “formula” for working with LGBT individuals, in keeping with the principles of multicultural competency (Sue, The Counseling Psychologist, 29:790–821, 2001), our goal is to encourage therapists to reflect on their existing biases and to gain knowledge and skills for working with this diverse population. Overall, we hope this article demonstrates to therapists how to conduct an affirmative intake interview that minimizes heterosexual and dualistic gender assumptions that remain so pervasive in our society and in therapeutic practice.

BACKGROUND Sexual minority-based victimization, which includes threats or enacted interpersonal violence, predicts elevated suicide risk among sexual minority individuals. However, research on personality factors that contribute to resilience among sexual minority populations is lacking. Using the Five-Factor Model, we hypothesized that individuals classified as adaptive (versus at-risk) would be at decreased risk for a suicide attempt in the context of reported lifetime victimization. METHOD Sexual minority-identified young adults between the ages of 18 and 25 (N=412) were recruited nationally and asked to complete an online survey containing measures of personality, sexual minority stress, and lifetime suicide attempts. RESULTS A two-stage cluster analytic method was used to empirically derive latent personality profiles and to classify respondents as adaptive (lower neuroticism and higher extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness) or at-risk (higher neuroticism, lower extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness) on the basis of their Five Factor Personality trait scores. Adaptive individuals were slightly older and less likely to conceal their sexual orientation, but reported similar rates of victimization, discrimination, and internalized heterosexism as their at-risk counterparts. Logistic regression results indicate that despite reporting similar rates of victimization, which was a significant predictor of lifetime suicide attempt, adaptive individuals evidenced decreased risk for attempted suicide in the context of victimization, relative to at-risk individuals. DISCUSSION These findings suggest that an adaptive personality profile may confer resilience in the face of sexual minority-based victimization. This study adds to our knowledge of sexual minority mental health and highlights new directions for future research.

© 2015 Elsevier Inc. Objective: Lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) orientation predicts greater substance use, treatment utilization, and poorer mental and physical health, but health needs of LGB individuals in substance abuse treatment remain largely unknown. The purpose of this study was to identify differences in mental and physical health needs of LGB individuals in substance abuse treatment. Methods: Substance abuse treatment admissions data from the County of San Francisco were used in this investigation of differences in mental and physical health problems and service utilization between LGB (n= 1,441) and heterosexual individuals (n= 11,770). Results: LGB individuals were more likely to have mental health diagnoses (adjORs ranging from 1.86 to 4.00) and current mental health prescription medications (adjORs from 1.79 to 4.99) than heterosexual counterparts. Gay and bisexual men and bisexual women but not lesbian women, were more likely to be receiving mental health treatment. Gay men and bisexual women were more likely than heterosexual counterparts to report physical health problems. Gay and bisexual men and bisexual women but not lesbian women were more likely to be receiving health care. There were no differences between LGB individuals and heterosexual counterparts in the number of emergency room visits or hospital overnight stays. Discussion: This study found that LGB individuals entering substance abuse treatment have greater mental and physical health needs than heterosexual counterparts. Implications for healthcare integration, research, and practice are discussed.

Objective: This study evaluated whether sexual orientation-specific differences in substance use behaviors exist among adults entering substance abuse treatment. Method: Admissions records (July 2007–December 2009) were examined for treatment programs in San Francisco, California receiving government funding. Lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) persons (n 1,441) were compared to heterosexual persons (n 11,770) separately by sex, examining primary problem substance of abuse, route of administration, age of first use, and frequency of use prior to treatment. Results: Regarding bisexual males, the only significant finding of note was greater prevalence of methamphetamine as the primary substance of abuse. When compared to heterosexual men, gay and bisexual men evidenced greater rates of primary problem methamphetamine use (44.5% and 21.8%, respectively, vs. 7.7%, adjusted odds ratios [ORs] 6.43 and 2.94), and there was lower primary heroin use among gay men (9.3% vs. 25.8%, OR 0.35). Among LGB individuals, race and ethnicity did not predict primary problem substance, except that among LGB men and women, a non-White race predicted cocaine use (OR 4.83 and 6.40, respectively), and among lesbian and bisexual women, Hispanic ethnicity predicted lower odds of primary cocaine use (OR 0.24). When compared to heterosexual men, gay men were more likely to smoke their primary problem substance (OR 1.61), first used this substance at an older age (M 23.16 vs. M 18.55, p .001), and used this substance fewer days prior to treatment (M 8.75 vs. M 11.41, p .001). There were no differences between heterosexual and lesbian or bisexual women. Conclusions: There were unique patterns of substance use for gay and bisexual men entering substance abuse treatment, but women did not evidence differences. Gay men evidenced unique factors that may reflect less severity of use when entering treatment including fewer days of use and a later age of initiation of their primary problem substances. The results underscore the importance of being sensitive to differences between gay, bisexual, and heterosexual males when considering substance use disorders. What is the public health significance of this article? This study suggests that it is important to consider the sexual orientation of individuals entering substance abuse treatment as it may be an indicator of different patterns of substance use, particularly among gay men.

Therapy meant to change someone's sexual orientation, or reorientation therapy, is still in practice despite statements from the major mental health organizations of its potential for harm. This qualitative study used an inductive content analysis strategy (Patton, 2002) to examine the experiences of thirty-eight individuals (31 males and seven females) who have been through a total of 113 episodes of reorientation therapy and currently identify as gay or lesbian. Religious beliefs were frequently cited as the reason for seeking reorientation therapy. Frequently endorsed themes of helpful components of reorientation therapy included connecting with others and feeling accepted. Harmful aspects of reorientation therapy included experiences of shame and negative impacts on mental health. Common reasons for identifying as LGB after the therapy included self-acceptance and coming to believe that sexual orientation change was not possible. The findings of this study were consistent with recommendations by the American Psychological Association Task Force on Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation (2009), which concluded that helpful aspects of reorientation therapy could be achieved through affirmative treatment methods while avoiding potential harms that may be associated with reorientation therapy. Limitations of the findings, including a small, self-selected sample, are discussed.

Little is known about the needs or characteristics of transgender individuals in substance abuse treatment settings. Transgender (n=199) and non-transgender (cisgender, n=13,440) individuals were compared on psychosocial factors related to treatment, health risk behaviors, medical and mental health status and utilization, and substance use behaviors within a database that documented individuals entering substance abuse treatment in San Francisco, CA from 2007 to 2009 using logistic and linear regression analyses (run separately by identified gender). Transgender men (assigned birth sex of female) differed from cisgender men across many psychosocial factors, including having more recent employment, less legal system involvement, greater incidence of living with a substance abuser, and greater family conflict, while transgender women (assigned birth sex of male) were less likely to have minor children than cisgender women. Transgender women reported greater needle use, and HIV testing rates were greater among transgender women. Transgender men and women reported higher rates of physical health problems, mental health diagnoses, and psychiatric medications, but there were no differences in service utilization. There were no differences in substance use behaviors except that transgender women were more likely to endorse primary methamphetamine use. Transgender individuals evidence unique strengths and challenges that could inform targeted services in substance abuse treatment. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd.

Previous research suggests that lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth are at elevated risk for using illicit drugs and misusing prescription drugs relative to heterosexual youth. Previous research also indicates that LGBT youth who attend high schools with a gay-straight alliance (GSA) report having fewer alcohol problems and lower levels of cigarette smoking. The present study investigates whether the absence of a GSA is associated with risk for illicit drug use and prescription drug misuse in a sample of 475 LGBT high school students (M age=16.79) who completed an online survey. After controlling for demographic variables and risk factors associated with illicit drug use, the results of 12 logistic regression analyses revealed that LGBT youth attending a high school without a GSA evidenced increased risk for using cocaine (adjusted odds ratio [adjOR]=3.11; 95% confidence interval [95% CI]=1.23-7.86), hallucinogens (adjOR=2.59; 95% CI=1.18-5.70), and marijuana (adjOR=2.22; 95% CI=1.37-3.59) relative to peers attending a high school with a GSA. Youth without a GSA also evidenced increased risk for the misuse of ADHD medication (adjOR=2.00; 95% CI=1.02-3.92) and prescription pain medication (adjOR=2.00; 95% CI=1.10-3.65). These findings extend the research base related to GSAs and further demonstrate the importance of providing LGBT youth with opportunities for socialization and support within the school setting. Important limitations of the present study are reviewed.

In a prior study (Cochran & Cauce, 2006), LGBT individuals seeking treatment demonstrated greater substance use severity, more psychosocial stressors, and increased use of psychiatric services when compared to their heterosexual counterparts. That study, and similar to others in the field of LGBT research, collapsed LGBT individuals into a single category and did not examine individual differences within this category. The present study utilizes the same sample of LGBT clients (N = 610); however, an exploratory cluster analysis was conducted, based on drug preference, to determine which subcategories exist within this unique sample. In a subsequent set of analyses, the sample was divided based on sexuality to determine if there were differences between these groups on psychosocial functioning variables. Results indicated three distinct clusters, which differed in both demographic characteristics and severity of substance use problems. Groups based on sexuality differed in terms of primary problem substance, as well as psychosocial variables. Implications for treatment of these subgroups are discussed.