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Competing Interests: We declare no competing interests.

Farmers' willingness and ability to adapt agricultural systems depend on their knowledge about changes in climate and perceived risks of extreme events. Using cross-sectional data of 450 farmers collected from three agro-ecological zones of Punjab, Pakistan, this study investigates farmer perceptions of climate change and their agreement with observed climatic trends. In addition, this study explores the correlation between different adaptation stages (perceptions, intentions, and adaptation) and their key drivers using a Multivariate Probit Model. This study also explores the adaptation measures adopted by farmers. The results of the study show that the perceptions of increasing mean temperature match well with locally recorded data. However, a discrepancy is found in some cases between farmer perceptions of rainfall changes and local climate records. Moreover, education, experience, land tenure, land holdings, extension, cooperation, access to weather forecasting, and marketing information are the factors influencing the three adaptation stages. A strong association is found among the three adaptation stages. Particularly, the study confirms the hypothesis that accurate perceptions lead to stronger adaptation intentions compared to underestimated or no perceptions. Further, farmers prefer basic adaptation measures including changing crop varieties, input use and planting dates over advanced measures, such as planting shade trees, soil conservation, and crop diversification. The study recommends providing farmers, especially small landholders and tenants, easy access to information, institutional services and training on the use of advanced measures to reduce negative impacts of climate change at the farm level.

Pakistan is among the countries highly exposed and vulnerable to climate change. The country has experienced many severe floods, droughts and storms over the last decades. However, little research has focused on the investigation of vulnerability and adaptation to climate-related risks in Pakistan. Against this backdrop, this article investigates the farm level risk perceptions and different aspects of vulnerability to climate change including sensitivity and adaptive capacity at farm level in Pakistan. We interviewed a total of 450 farming households through structured questionnaires in three districts of Punjab province of Pakistan. This study identified a number of climate-related risks perceived by farm households such as extreme temperature events, insect attacks, animal diseases and crop pests. Limited water availability, high levels of poverty and a weak role of local government in providing proper infrastructure were the factors that make farmers more sensitive to climate-related risks. Uncertainty or reduction in crop and livestock yields; changed cropping calendars and water shortage were the major adverse impacts of climate-related risks reported by farmers in the study districts. Better crop production was reported as the only positive effect. Further, this study identified a number of farm level adaptation methods employed by farm households that include changes in crop variety, crop types, planting dates and input mix, depending upon the nature of the climate-related risks. Lack of resources, limited information, lack of finances and institutional support were some constraints that limit the adaptive capacity of farm households. This study also reveals a positive role of cooperation and negative role of conflict in the adaptation process. The study suggests to address the constraints to adaptation and to improve farm level cooperation through extended outreach and distribution of institutional services, particularly climate-specific farm advisory services., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The anthropogenic activities if not sensibly managed put enormous pressure on water resources of any country. Water quality of Kabul River has severely been polluted by rapid urbanization and industrialization. The sub lethal organic pollution is caused by discharge of effluents and other wastes into the river. The effluents from multiple leather processing units, and various other industries along with human feces and livestock manure are polluting the river ecology at an alarming rate. Climate is further impacting the quality of river and diminutive work has been done on climate change impacts on water quality. Integrated efforts are required to improve the water quality to reduce the morbidity and mortality rate in Pakistan and Afghanistan. In this review, water quality situation of Kabul River in Pakistan and Afghanistan along with potential impacts on health, agriculture and aquatic life under the changing climate scenario are presented. Water quality indices and modelling approaches for different parameters are suggested under the changing climate scenario which is expected to increase in the region to find the fate and transport of pollutants in the Kabul Rivers basin. Finally, recommendations were made to improve water quality of Kabul River and to decrease its adverse impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research assessed the robustness of a new water governance system in Pakistan through Ostrom's design principles, examined the potential of water commons against climate‐induced water scarcity, the role compliance of Khal Panchayat (KP, watercourse level user association) and problems in their implementation. Data collection included personal interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs) with 125 farmers in five KPs from Punjab. Findings revealed that the presence of the eight design principles varied from 3.32 to 5.80 principles per KP. However, only one KP had a robust potential against water scarcity. The FGDs identified that conflicts were likely to increase due to water scarcity. Moreover, conflict resolution and collection of water charges were the least followed roles due to lack of legal protection. However, KPs fulfilled the roles related to watercourse maintenance, conducting internal meetings and elections. Thus, more climate‐resilient water co‐management under commons requires legal protection, and authority to redraw demand‐based water allocation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Incorporating adaptation into subsistence farming systems is an important strategy to reduce damages related to climate change and to protect livelihoods in developing countries. Using a dataset of 450 farm households collected from three agro-ecological zones, this study examines rural networks, assesses farm-level institutional support and documents any existing structural gaps on climate change adaptation in the agricultural sector of Pakistan. For this purpose, a social network analysis method is used. The study findings reveal that farmers reported a decrease in crop production and increase in pests and diseases due to climate change. Further, changing crop varieties, sowing dates, input mixes and planting trees are the key measures adopted by farmers. Lack of information, finances and resources are the key adaptation constraints. The study findings show that only 28% and 13% of the respondents do not have access to financial services and climate adaptation knowledge, respectively. Support to farmers mainly consists of marketing information and farm equipment from community-based organizations, while private institutions offer weather forecasting services. Public institutions are poorly represented in the network analysis. We also found that extension services are key institutions in the climate adaptation network, while agricultural credits, post-harvest services and marketing of produce were dominant but weakly connected in the financial support network. We also found that with an increase in the provision of services at the farm level, farmers not only adapt more but also move from low-cost and short-term measures to advanced measures. This study proposes an integrated framework to improve the stakeholders' networking through different kind of partnerships and better adaptation to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pakistan is one of the most adversely affected countries by climate-related extreme events such as floods owing to its geographical and climatic conditions. Over the last two decades, frequency and severity of flood events have been increased and has adversely affected the livelihood and well-being of millions of people in Pakistan. The development of effective mitigation policies requires a clear understanding of the impacts and local responses to extreme events, which is quite limited in Pakistan. This study used a dataset of 600 households collected through face-to-face interviews from two districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province that were severely affected from 2010 floods. The correlation and probit model methods are used to assess the study objectives. The findings of the study revealed that elevated ground floor, foundation strengthening, construction of house with reinforced material and precautionary savings were the main adaptation measures adopted at household level. The results from the probit model showed that gender, age, location, monthly income, family size, house ownership, disability, and education influence the households' choices of mitigation strategies. The study further indicated that adoption of mitigation strategies at household level is constrained by several factors, i.e., financial constraint, lack of early warning system, lack of land use planning and inadequate resources. Further mitigation strategies also varied across different groups of households based on education, age, and income. Additionally the study discovered that the local policies on disaster management need to be improved to address the barriers to the adoption of advanced level adaptation measures at the household level such as advanced level early warning system, flood forecasting and dissemination of updated information and support, house building codes, infrastructure building practices, and adequate spatial planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evaluation of the ongoing efforts for farm level adaptation to climate change is crucial to understand their effectiveness and to suggest further actions at the policy level. The current study explores the adaptation of wheat farmers to climate change, its determinants and its impact on food productivity and crop income in rural Pakistan. This study is based on a primary dataset of 442 wheat farmers conducted through face-to-face structured interviews from 65 villages across three agro-ecological zones of Punjab Province, Pakistan. The study employs logistic regression analysis to find adaptation determinants and uses the propensity score matching technique to estimate the causal impact of adaptation on food productivity and crop income. The results of the study suggest that wheat farmers were well aware of climate change, but for various reasons did not adapt accordingly. The major adaptation strategies implemented by wheat farmers include changing planting dates, crop varieties and fertilizer types. Moreover, education, farming experience, access to agricultural extension, weather forecasting and marketing information were the factors that significantly affected farmers' adaptation decisions. Adapting wheat crops to climate change significantly and positively affects wheat productivity and net crop income and hence indirectly improves the farmers' wellbeing and local food security. More benefits were achieved by farmers who used a combination of different adaptation strategies. The study suggests to focus on farmers' education, easy access to farm advisory services and information on new adaptation methods for sustainable food production and local food security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public institutions could play an important role in building agricultural resilience to climate change by providing information and technology support to farmers. This study takes the case of Pakistan to investigate the perspective and capacities of public institutions as well as to identify gaps in current institutional arrangements in dealing and managing climate change in the agriculture sector. For this purpose, 53 office bearers from thirteen public institutions in Punjab province of Pakistan were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire to collect data on climate knowledge, training, coordination, and resource availability. The study uses an index-based approach to calculate Institutional Capacity Indices (ICI) based on selected seven indicators. The results of the index analysis show that institutions have the least financial capacity, followed by lacking physical and human resources. Whereas results show high index value for perception and knowledge, indicating a good understanding of climate change at the institutional level. The overall ICI index value indicates a medium level capacity of institutions in dealing with climate change. Moreover, the study shows that gaps in management, non-availability of financial and physical resources, and lack of training are the key bottlenecks for limited adaptation support from public institutions. This study highlights the importance of reducing gaps so that institutions could play their role in building the resilience of the agriculture sector to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elucidating the effects of asymmetric warming during winter and spring will help develop a feasible crop management strategy for climate change. Field experiments were conducted using the Yangmai-13 (vernal type) and Yannong-19 (semi-winter type) winter wheat cultivars to investigate the effects of night-warming during winter (warming by 1.47–1.53 °C from tillering to jointing), spring (warming by 1.68–1.77 °C from jointing to booting), and winter + spring (warming by 1.53–1.60 °C from tillering to booting) on plant growth and N utilization in 2014–2016. The results showed that the grain yield, N agronomic efficiency (NAE), and N recovery efficiency (NRE) of both cultivars were highly increased in response to night-warming, which were associated with enhanced dry matter and N accumulation, and winter + spring night-warming resulted in greater increases than winter night-warming and spring night-warming. Furthermore, the increase in pre-anthesis N accumulation was much higher than after anthesis, resulting in a greater increase in post-anthesis dry matter accumulation due to more leaf N distribution at anthesis to support photosynthetic production. Root growth characteristics (i.e., root length, surface area and volume, and root bleeding intensity) were significantly promoted, which favored plant N uptake. Soil urease and protease activity as well as the net N mineralization rate, which are involved in soil N supply capacity, were increased, whereas soil inorganic N content and apparent N surplus were clearly decreased, which indicated that plant N uptake capacity was highly improved in response to night-warming conditions. In conclusion, winter and spring night-warming improve pre-anthesis root growth and N uptake ability to promote plant growth, resulting in increased N utilization efficiency with reduced N fertilizer loss, and winter + spring night-warming has more advantages for N uptake and utilization of winter wheat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]