Search

Background: Research has established the family as the predominant context for child labor practices. Decisions to involve children in child labor within the family or by a family member (herein family child labor) is strongly motivated by cultural beliefs that normalize child labor. This systematic review sought to synthesize evidence on the social norms that support child labor practices, and the normative interpretation of international child labor legislation/standards., Methods: We followed the PRISMA procedure for systematic review by reviewing empirical articles published between 2000 to 2021 and contained within the four key databases: Scopus, ISI Web of Sciences, PubMed and Embase. Findings from 13 articles that met the inclusion criteria were analyzed thematically., Results: The review included studies from three continents: Africa, Asia and Europe. Gender norms, informal apprenticeship norm, norms on succession and sustenance as well as obedience, were key social norms that influenced child labor practices in the family. Parents' decision to involve children in child labor was strongly influenced by the collective acceptance of some occupations (e.g., cocoa farming and fishing) as family occupations, which need to be preserved, undertaken and passed on to children. Child rights and the UNCRC principle of children's participation were considered foreign to most non-western countries and interpreted as contravention to the cherished social norm of obedience. The findings underlie the link between social norms and the common social values of resilience, hard work, and respect., Conclusion: The results provide foundations and target to develop normative change intervention programs to re-orient the negative interpretations of common social values and provide alternative pathways that prevent child labor within the social context.

Considering the inherently hazardous nature of some artisanal fishing and farm work in Ghana, there is sometimes a thin line between what is considered child work and child labour. I drew on literature exploring cultural relativism and human rights and the concept of the margin of appreciation in considering whether child labour violates human rights. I aimed to establish parental perceptions of child labour and human rights in rural and urban Ghana amongst 60 government officials, NGO representatives, and both parents whose children were/were not involved in child labour. The average age of participants was 31 years. Semistructured interviews were conducted with parents (10), stakeholders (10), focus groups (30); and participant observation techniques (10) utilised to gather the needed data and purposively sampled across rural areas (Ankaase, Anwiankwanta and Kensere), and urban areas (Jamestown, Korle Gonno and Chorkor) in Ghana. Interviews were recorded, transcribed utilising a framework approach as the main data analysis method. The paper finds that children are engaged in work to teach them work ethics as most parents consider work socialisation as beneficial for children and society. The paper also finds that knowledge of human rights makes parents more committed to children's welfare. Overall, the paper finds that sensitivity to the economic and cultural context is important in understanding the issue of child labour and, more generally, in applying the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) and working out the parenting policies and practices that are in the best interests of the child., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This study takes a rural development perspective to examine the various reasons behind the use of children under 18 years in cocoa farms in Ghana. Using descriptive research, a sample size of 385 cocoa farmers was selected through the multi-stage sampling technique. The analyses included mean, standard deviation, frequency, percentage, and perception index. Although the level of usage of children on cocoa farms was relatively low (74%), majority of the children were involved in nursing of cocoa seedlings (87.8%), digging of holes for seedlings (76.3%), gathering of pods (55.7%) and heaping of pods (53.9%). Farmers involved children on cocoa farms for the following three reasons; to acquire indigenous knowledge of farming patterns (Mean=2.18), it is a way of life to learn their parents' occupation (Mean=2.18), and income source of the household (Mean=2.11). The challenge most farmers face in the use of children for farm activities is the fact that the children do not meet the required strength/energy (Mean=2.48). Policy efforts towards the complete eradication of using children under 18 years on cocoa farms must take into consideration the rural nature of the environments in which cocoa farming takes place in order not for it to backfire as is the case currently. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Child labor and child work conditions are analyzed in Cozumel and Valle de Bravo, both major tourist destinations in Mexico, where critical situations of minors employed in tourism-related activities were identified. Theoretically, local development considers child labor as a variable that increases the vulnerability of children and impedes their well-being. Qualitative methodology that included interviews and direct observation was used. The main finding was that poverty-related factors are the main drivers of child labor, compromising education, health, and therefore the future of minors. Nevertheless, several other factors intervene in child work, therefore public policies ought to focus on the context of each of the areas where these types of tourism-related work prevail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For a long time the world has campaigned against child labour, both with local and global efforts. These initiatives however tend to ignore contextual forces such as, specific socio-cultural contexts and societal interpretation of child labour. Scholarship on this subject uncovers several circumstances, reasons, consequences, processes, and challenges of child labour among different communities in Africa. Extant literature also reveals information regarding the complexities of sociocultural dimension in examining child labour practices. Building on the already existing evidence, this paper uncovers sociocultural complexity in explaining child labour practices among semi nomadic pastoral Wataturu communities in Igunga. The paper exploits various information collected through library and archival research, participant observation, and oral interviews to demonstrate how sociocultural set up of Wataturu challenges the mainstream approach to the claimed child labour practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Child labour elimination is a challenge in almost all countries worldwide. Studies show that child labour is deep-rooted within households where it is produced and supplied to various economic sectors as specifically demanded. The knowledge about how it evolves within the household during an individual's childhood is complex. This study explores the influence of parenting practices and attitudes on the genesis of child labour in small-scale gold mining communities in Tanzania. A qualitative research approach was adopted during the investigation. A purposefully selected sample of 73 participants obtained from the population of mining communities in Tabora and Shinyanga was used. Primary data were collected using in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, while secondary data were gathered from grey literature. The collected qualitative data were subjected to content analysis. The major findings established that the problem of child labour evolves and is perpetuated during an individual's childhood due to households' parenting practices and attitudes towards child work. It is proposed that the government, policymakers and other stakeholders responsible for the elimination of child labour should design and implement intervention policies and programmes aimed at changing parenting attitudes of community members and practices towards child work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(1) Adverse childhood experiences (ACE) are a global challenge, prioritized in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. The ACE questionnaire is widely adopted in the USA as a tool for measuring population-level trends, such as negative health, behavioral, and economic outcomes. Intuitively, children in resource-scarce settings are exposed to higher levels of trauma. To understand the global picture, theWorld Health Organization (WHO) adapted the ACE international questionnaire (ACE-IQ), to inform policy and target interventions. However, evaluation of whether the ACE-IQ captures the experiences of around 160 million working children remains limited. (2) I applied the ACE-IQ scoring tools to detailed case studies of working children, comparing issues highlighted by holistic assessment to those captured by the ACE-IQ. (3) The ACE-IQ struggles to capture nuance across cultural contexts. As a consequence, application of the ACE-IQ as a policy tool risks “policy failure”. The tool reflects prevalentWestern concerns, such as school attendance and parental supervision, but global concerns affecting working children such as forced economic migration and famine are neglected. This limitation produces “policy myopia”, sidelining certain global challenges. (4) The ACE-IQ is a useful public health tool, increasingly used to define policy goals. However, given the limitations of the ACE-IQ, the consequences of prioritizing these particular policy goals need to be actively acknowledged and mitigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to understand the patterns and incidence of child labour in India and to examine the magnitude of child labour across different social groups. It analyses the impact of the socio-economic background of the children on their participation in the labour market. Design/methodology/approach: The paper primarily relies on the data collected from secondary sources. The census of India data and the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) 66th round data (2009–2010) on employment and unemployment in India for the study. The dependent variable on child labour has been computed by the author for the analysis in the paper. Findings: The findings of the paper suggest that poverty is not the only determinant of child labour, but gender and caste of a person is also a significant factor for child labour. The study found that children from lower-caste backgrounds in India seem to participate more in the labour market. In terms of gender, the study found that boys are more likely to engage in economic activities or paid jobs while girls are more likely to engage in household activities. Originality/value: Data used in this paper has been extracted by the author from unit level data provided by NSSO. The variables used for the analysis in the presented paper has been constructed by the author and the figures provided are the result of the author's estimation on data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(1) Adverse childhood experiences (ACE) are a global challenge, prioritized in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. The ACE questionnaire is widely adopted in the USA as a tool for measuring population-level trends, such as negative health, behavioral, and economic outcomes. Intuitively, children in resource-scarce settings are exposed to higher levels of trauma. To understand the global picture, the World Health Organization (WHO) adapted the ACE international questionnaire (ACE-IQ), to inform policy and target interventions. However, evaluation of whether the ACE-IQ captures the experiences of around 160 million working children remains limited. (2) I applied the ACE-IQ scoring tools to detailed case studies of working children, comparing issues highlighted by holistic assessment to those captured by the ACE-IQ. (3) The ACE-IQ struggles to capture nuance across cultural contexts. As a consequence, application of the ACE-IQ as a policy tool risks “policy failure”. The tool reflects prevalent Western concerns, such as school attendance and parental supervision, but global concerns affecting working children such as forced economic migration and famine are neglected. This limitation produces “policy myopia”, sidelining certain global challenges. (4) The ACE-IQ is a useful public health tool, increasingly used to define policy goals. However, given the limitations of the ACE-IQ, the consequences of prioritizing these particular policy goals need to be actively acknowledged and mitigated.

Copyright of Çalışma ve Toplum is the property of Calisma ve Toplum and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Since Indonesia's transition to democracy in 1998, wealth inequality has increased significantly with a dramatic rise in the wealth of the rich and stagnating income growth among poorer citizens. Similar to many developing countries, the issue of child workers in Indonesia is a critical problem. The 2015 National Labour Force Survey recorded 1.65 million children aged 15-17 involved in child work in Indonesia. Efforts to encourage the participation of child workers in schooling has been greatly promoted but few studies have investigated the issue of the impact of child work on student learning outcomes. Children involved in work are likely to be left behind in educational achievement. Their disadvantaged social, cultural, and economic backgrounds lead to physical and psychosocial vulnerabilities, which requires democratic-classroom approaches, characterized by child-centred settings and teachers familiar with students' diverse learning abilities. This paper presents findings from a study investigating Indonesian teachers' perspectives on the impacts of work on student learning outcomes and how they implement diverse teaching and learning styles when educating child workers. This study highlighted the lack of school and teacher readiness in managing child workers' diverse needs and the absence of teachers' involvement in developing policies for child worker education that may all lead to child workers not achieving learning outcomes. This study outcomes also support democratic-style classroom approaches in making education a reliable investment for child workers. This study provides recommendations for improved policies and practices for the local government and schools in the East Nusa Tenggara province. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports on a study that investigated the effectiveness of child labour laws intended to promote child rights and the protection of children from unfair and forced labour. Legal scholars distinguish between child work and child labour: forced child labour manifests itself in abusing children sexually, forcing children to work on farms, and compromising children's rights to education. Although South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zambia have laws in place to protect children from child labour, the abuse of children continues in these countries. Furthermore, although these three countries are signatories to conventions of the International Labour Organization that seek to eliminate child labour, they have been unable to stem the tide of child labour. This article argues that there is a need for the three countries to work closely together to implement policies that reverse or fight against child labour. The researchers used a qualitative methodology to interpret the variations in the application of child labour laws. They found there are no harmonised laws to deal with child labour in South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Hence, this article recommends that an independent supranational organisation be established in Southern Africa to monitor, evaluate, and implement progressive laws to eradicate child labour in line with internationally recognised best practices as set out in child labour laws. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports on a study that investigated the effectiveness of child labour laws intended to promote child rights and the protection of children from unfair and forced labour. Legal scholars distinguish between child work and child labour: forced child labour manifests itself in abusing children sexually, forcing children to work on farms, and compromising children's rights to education. Although South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zambia have laws in place to protect children from child labour, the abuse of children continues in these countries. Furthermore, although these three countries are signatories to conventions of the International Labour Organization that seek to eliminate child labour, they have been unable to stem the tide of child labour. This article argues that there is a need for the three countries to work closely together to implement policies that reverse or fight against child labour. The researchers used a qualitative methodology to interpret the variations in the application of child labour laws. They found there are no harmonised laws to deal with child labour in South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Hence, this article recommends that an independent supranational organisation be established in Southern Africa to monitor, evaluate, and implement progressive laws to eradicate child labour in line with internationally recognised best practices as set out in child labour laws. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A recent child-work study by the International Labour Organization reports that 27% of children in Tajikistan ages 5–17 worked in 2013. Although children worked in agriculture or performed household chores in Soviet Tajikistan, child work for pay is a relatively new phenomenon in modern Tajikistan. This study examines the pathways to child work and the families’ perceptions of child work experiences. Some of the main findings of this study are the themes connected to normalization and acceptance of child work in Tajikistan. These are explained by expectations placed on children at the social, family and personal levels that are in turn affected by macroeconomic forces that are by-products of the transitional economy. The study also explores differences in expectations by gender, age and area of residence. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Child labour is pervasive across sub-Saharan Africa. The common assumption is that monetary poverty is its most important cause. This paper investigates this hypothesis with empirical evidence by exploring structural, geographic, monetary, demographic, cultural, seasonal and school-supply factors simultaneously that can influence child labour. It is a first attempt in the literature to combine quantitative with qualitative methods to identify a broader range of potential factors-on the demand- and supply-side and at the micro and macro levels-for why children work in agrarian economies like Ghana. Interviews with the Minister of Education and with children enrich the multivariate regression results. The multiple sources of child labour appear to include, in particular, the structure of the economy, social norms and no returns to rural basic education. Policy responses are outlined especially on the demand side that are needed to help reduce harmful child labour that affects children's education and later opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Zambia, the ways in which social change intersects with rural livelihoods to increase children’s workload and commodify their labour are poorly understood. In this article, changing patterns of rural children’s work are seen as necessitated by their evolving household roles and contributions in an increasingly rural cash-based economy. Drawing on child-focused qualitative research in rural Lundazi district in Zambia, it is explored how children use a traditional labour practice called ‘ganyu’ (piecework) to ameliorate poverty. The infiltration of the cash-based economy, amplified by the Economic Structural Adjustment Programmes, a predominantly adult-centred traditional informal socio-economic levelling mechanism ofganyu, and its evolution into more cash-oriented transactions increasingly involving children are discussed. Althoughganyuhas largely been seen as characterized by exploitative labour relations, the empirical findings from this research indicate the complex ways in which the practice is empowering children and their families. The resources accrued throughganyuare vital for both personal and household well-being. The findings of this study have important implications to rethink not only contentious issues of child labour but also dominant narratives of childhood that fail to take into account children’s lived experiences as situated in local, social, economic, and cultural contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper focuses on the range of experiences of children who migrate independently in Southeast Asia, exploring the multiple complex motives that cause children to migrate seeking work. The paper challenges assumptions held by some international children's welfare agencies that children who migrate for work are passive victims of exploitation who are ‘trafficked’ or forced do so, or that when they migrate it is for purely economic reasons. To ensure that children's rights are not being violated in the name of ‘protection', the paper emphasises the need for further participatory rights-based research in order to understand the multiple motivations and lived experiences of child migrants in different contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In biodiversity rich agriculture–forest moasic landscapes in south-western Ethiopia, the production of coffee and food crops, including guarding them from forest-dwelling mammals, requires a high input of labour, which is supplied partly by children. Through field observations and interviews with smallholders, we studied the extent of children's participation in coffee production and food crop guarding, its impact on school attendance and implications for sustainable development. The findings revealed that the extent of children's participation in such work is correlated with the level of household's income and residential location, i.e. near versus far from forests or in coffee versus non-coffee areas. Child labour and school absenteeism linked to coffee production and crop guarding are widespread problems. Some of the measures taken to mitigate the problem of school absenteeism were coercive and posed threats to poor households. The paper concludes that child work in coffee production and crop protection is at the cost of school attendance for many children, which represents a critical social justice issue and a trade-off with the economic and environmental values of the forest. Reducing poverty would likely mitigate the problem of child labour and school absenteeism and promote synergistic development in the region. • Placing studies on child labour and schooling within specific social-ecological contexts will likely generate better understanding and policy outcomes. • A comparative analysis of child labour mobilisation for coffee production and food crop guarding exposes a negative link between biodiversity conservation and school attendance. • Coercive measures to mitigate child labour may worsen the situation of vulnerable families who should rather be provided with targeted economic support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, using the 2005–2006 National Family Health Survey dataset from India, we study the likelihood of a school-age child working, combining work with schooling or being idle, rather than attending school full time. Our analysis finds that with the inclusion of household chores in the child labour definition, boys are significantly more likely than girls to be full-time students and significantly less likely to be working, being idle or combining school and work. There are also significant regional differences, with children from the north-eastern states significantly more likely to be in the idle category rather than in school. The likelihood of being in the idle category is also significantly higher for older children, children with pre-school age siblings, urban children, Muslims and children from Scheduled Tribes. Finally, parental education, household wealth and land ownership are significantly and negatively correlated with the likelihood that the child is working, but land ownership does increase the risk of a child combining work and schooling. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper portrays the nature of child workers in India and seeks to understand its many complexities. It looks at the definition of child labour, the extent of its prevalence, the reasons why children work, and the occupations they are engaged in. It outlines India’s position on international obligations, its expanding domestic laws, and the tardy implementation of these laws. It examines some of the inherent cultural constraints and the role of values and beliefs in perpetuating child labour. It analyses the relationship between education and child workers, and a possible solution in the form of compulsory education. The paper emphasises that child workers in India are from the marginalized sections and do not work out of choice. It stresses that this phenomenon is, above all, a problem for the children. The paper concludes by advocating the need to discard attitudes that are discriminatory or rationalise abuse, and the need to adopt a rights-based, child-centred approach to counter the increasing number of child workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By exploring the experiences of over a hundred child traders in Cusco, this research provides an insight into the more everyday circumstances of children's work in developing countries. The working conditions of child traders raise serious concerns, including: dangers of accidents, theft and abuse; shortage of time for play; and some disruption to education. Nevertheless, the positives of trading work are substantial. Although the children feel that they have to work, they gain enjoyment and economic empowerment. Moreover, they display a certain self esteem and confidence in the knowledge of their trading skills, and a spatial awareness of the best trading sites, demonstrating agency in their choice of trading locations. The findings suggest that international policy, which emphasises universal condemnation and prohibition of child work, requires revision. Such policy should be replaced by a more flexible approach, which recognises the benefits of children's work and embraces supportive protection for children engaged in the lighter forms of work such as trading. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the role of child labor in European economics particularly with respect to industrialization during the 19th and early 20th centuries, child labor's decline starting at the end of the 19th century, and non-industrial child labor in sectors like agricultural and service sectors. Variations in employment and unemployment of children in diverse countries and labor occupations are cited statistically. Eventual legal prohibitions, regulations, and safeguards enacted to humanize and mitigate child labor are detailed.

This article examines the experiences of working children aged between 9 and 14 years in a German city, and the meanings the children ascribe to their work. This qualitative study is based upon a broad concept of work, which includes both unpaid and paid work. As far as work is concerned, the most important thing for children is being able to act independently and find approval for their work. They prefer to receive adequate payment as a form of recognition, but money is not a necessary motive nor the only motive for working. Children's attitude towards their work differs according to a number of factors: whether it offers the opportunity to perform their skills; the concrete use it has for others, and how far that work is appreciated by adults in their social environment. Work is not regarded as being in competition with school, but is seen as an additional opportunity for children to gain new experiences and expand their scope of activities. Work experience can become an important element in children's participative autonomy. Thus it can potentially strengthen their social status and encourage girls and boys to play an active role in society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Politica y Sociedad is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background: Economic stresses are a frequently cited reason for children doing farm work. Objective: To explore the relationship between economic indicators and child agricultural work hours between January 2001 and October 2003. Methods: This ecologic study design compares trends in aggregate child work hours with national and regional economic indicators. Child work hours were obtained from quarterly surveillance data from a randomized field trial of agricultural task guidelines for children. Two thousand three hundred and sixty children living or working on 845 farms in central New York participated in the original study. The relationship between child work hours and three economic indicators: national all farm index (AFI) ratio, national fuel index, and regional milk prices was analyzed using time series plots, correlation, and multiple linear regression. Results: The AFI ratio was positively correlated with child work hours (r = 0.49, p = 0.008) but there was no significant correlation between child work hours and fuel or milk prices. Multiple linear regression demonstrated that the relationship between AFI and child work hours is independent of a seasonal effect. Conclusions: Increased child work hours may be associated with periods of higher farm sector productivity, rather than economic stress per se. Findings are limited by the ecologic study design, use of national economic indicators, and the limited number of cycles of child work hours available for time series analysis. Economic conditions may influence decisions about children's farm work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article tries to analyse the evolution over the past 40 years of children's domestic work and its representations in urban Côte d'Ivoire, and, particularly, how these practices evolved from family work linked to educational processes, into the kind of wage work that exists today. Listening to the children themselves, the aim is to find out how the petites bonnes (young maids) perceive their situation as workers, how they make it their own and how they see their future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]