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BackgroundDifficult facemask ventilation is perilous in children whose tracheas are difficult to intubate. We hypothesised that certain physical characteristics and anaesthetic factors are associated with difficult mask ventilation in paediatric patients who also had difficult tracheal intubation.MethodsWe queried a multicentre registry for children who experienced "difficult" or "impossible" facemask ventilation. Patient and case factors known before mask ventilation attempt were included for consideration in this regularised multivariable regression analysis. Incidence of complications, and frequency and efficacy of rescue placement of a supraglottic airway device were also tabulated. Changes in quality of mask ventilation after injection of a neuromuscular blocking agent were assessed.ResultsThe incidence of difficult mask ventilation was 9% (483 of 5453 patients). Infants and patients having increased weight, being less than 5th percentile in weight for age, or having Treacher-Collins syndrome, glossoptosis, or limited mouth opening were more likely to have difficult mask ventilation. Anaesthetic induction using facemask and opioids was associated with decreased risk of difficult mask ventilation. The incidence of complications was significantly higher in patients with "difficult" mask ventilation than in patients without. Rescue placement of a supraglottic airway improved ventilation in 71% (96 of 135) of cases. Administration of neuromuscular blocking agents was more frequently associated with improvement or no change in quality of ventilation than with worsening.ConclusionsCertain abnormalities on physical examination should increase suspicion of possible difficult facemask ventilation. Rescue use of a supraglottic airway device in children with difficult or impossible mask ventilation should be strongly considered.

A 3‐year‐old boy presented with episodes of uneasiness and transient loss of consciousness. Atrial tachyarrhythmias with rapid ventricular rate was diagnosed and initially unsuccessfully treated with oral antiarrhythmic drugs. Subsequent Holter monitoring revealed ventricular arrhythmias. Despite pharmacologic treatment, he needed numerous cardioversions. Surgical sympathectomy was planned. Initially, sympathectomy was achieved using a continuous high thoracic epidural block and was performed to ascertain the efficacy of the thoracic sympathectomy. This successfully reduced the ventricular arrhythmias and the need for antiarrhythmic agents. The epidural infusion was also used for pain relief following the subsequent surgical sympathectomy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Pain management following minimally invasive repair of pectus excavatum is variable. We recently adopted a comprehensive multimodal analgesic protocol that standardizes perioperative analgesic management. We hypothesized that patients managed with this protocol would use more opioids postoperatively, have similar pain control, and shorter length of stay compared to patients managed with thoracic epidural infusion. Aims We retrospectively compared opioid consumption, pain scores, and length of stay between a cohort of patients managed with our multimodal analgesic protocol and a cohort managed with a thoracic epidural infusion. Methods This retrospective cohort comparison includes patients, 8 to 21 years of age, managed with either thoracic epidural infusion (n = 21) or multimodal analgesic protocol (n = 29) following minimally invasive repair of pectus excavatum from January 1, 2011 through September 15, 2015. The primary outcome, total daily opioid consumption in morphine equivalents, is presented as an average by postoperative day. Secondary outcomes included median daily pain score and length of stay. Results Patients were similar in age, weight, sex, and physical status. Patients managed with thoracic epidural infusion received less opioid (morphine equivalents-mg/kg) intraoperatively compared to multimodal analgesic protocol (difference of mean [95% confidence interval] 0.22 [0.16-0.28] P ≤ .01) but required more total opioid through postoperative day 3 (difference of mean [95% confidence interval] 1.2 [0.26-2.14] P = .01). We did not observe a difference in pain scores. Median length of stay was 1 day less in patients managed with multimodal analgesic protocol (difference of median [95% confidence interval] 1 [0.3-1.7] P = .003). Conclusion Implementation of a standardized comprehensive multimodal analgesic protocol following minimally invasive repair of pectus excavatum resulted in equivalent analgesia with a modest reduction in length of stay when compared to thoracic epidural. We did not observe an opioid sparing effect in our thoracic epidural which may reflect technique variability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Hip arthroscopic surgery is performed on older pediatric patients. Fascia iliaca compartment block has proven efficacy in providing analgesia following hip surgery and can be performed with target location of local anesthetic below or above the inguinal ligament. The reported success of ultrasound-guided infra-inguinal fascia iliaca compartment block is lower when compared to traditional landmark technique, while the reliability of supra-inguinal fascia iliaca compartment block is unreported. Aim The primary aim was to report the results in obtaining sensory changes in the distribution of the femoral and lateral femoral cutaneous nerves following supra-inguinal fascia iliaca compartment block in patients undergoing arthroscopic hip surgery. Secondary outcomes are the ability to find echogenic landmarks and to report pain scores and opioid consumption. Methods We reviewed the electronic medical record and regional anesthesia database of patients receiving ultrasound-guided fascia iliaca compartment block for arthroscopic hip surgery. Sensory changes to the femoral and lateral femoral cutaneous nerves were determined. Identification of echogenic landmarks was quantified. Pain scores and opioid consumption were determined. Results Seventeen patients of mean age 15.4 years old ( SD 1.3; range 13-17 years) were included. Sensory changes to both the femoral and lateral femoral cutaneous nerves occurred in 94% of patients (95% CI: 82%-100%). The average volume of ropivacaine 0.2% was 0.53 mL/Kg ( SD 0.11 mL/Kg). Echogenic landmarks were identified in all patients. Pain scores and opioid consumption were generally low. Conclusion A supra-inguinal location for the deposition of local anesthetic when performing fascia iliaca nerve block for hip surgery is reliable in anesthetizing the femoral and lateral femoral cutaneous nerves and should encourage investigation into the clinical efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Perioperative care for children with autism spectrum disorder may be challenging. Previous investigators recommend development of an individualized perioperative management plan with caregiver involvement. Aim The primary goal was to determine the usefulness of an individualized plan based on the decision to provide preoperative sedation stratified by autism spectrum severity level. Secondary goals were to assess the effectiveness of the plan based on subjective assessment of patient behavior at induction of anesthesia and caregiver satisfaction. Methods We developed an individualized plan for each child with autism spectrum disorder scheduled for anesthesia. Children were categorized by autism spectrum disorder severity level. With institutional ethics approval, we conducted a retrospective chart review to document need for preoperative sedation, sedation stratified by autism spectrum disorder severity level, behavior at induction, and caregiver satisfaction. Results Between 2012 and 2014, we successfully prepared a plan for 246 (98%) of 251 surgical or diagnostic procedures in 224 patients. Severity level was distributed as 45% Severity Level 1 and Asperger's, 25% Severity Level 2, and 30% Severity Level 3. The majority (90%) of cases were scheduled as day surgery. Preoperative sedation increased with increasing severity level: Severity Level 1 (21%) or Asperger's (31%), Severity Level 2 (44%), and Severity Level 3 (56%). The odds ratio for sedation use was 5.5 [ CI: 2.6-11.5, P<.001] with Severity Level 3 vs Severity Level 1 patients. Cooperation at induction of anesthesia was 90% overall with preoperative sedation administered to 94 (38%) of the entire cohort. Cooperation was greatest in Severity Level 1 (98%) and Asperger's patients (93%) and somewhat less (85%) in patients in Severity Levels 2 and 3. The plan was helpful to guide sedation choices as cooperation did not differ between sedated and unsedated children at any severity level (overall χ2=2.87 P=.09). Satisfaction among caregivers contacted was 98%. Conclusion The results suggest that an individualized plan is helpful in the perioperative management of children with autism spectrum disorder and that knowledge of autism spectrum disorder severity level may be helpful in determining the need for preoperative sedation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Caudal blocks are performed through the sacral hiatus in order to provide pain control in children undergoing lower abdominal surgery. During the block, it is important to avoid advancing the needle beyond the sacrococcygeal ligament too much to prevent unintended dural puncture. This study used demographic data to establish simple guidelines for predicting a safe needle depth in the caudal epidural space in children. Methods A total of 141 children under 12 years old who had undergone lumbar-sacral magnetic resonance imaging were included. The T2 sagittal image that provided the best view of the sacrococcygeal membrane and the dural sac was chosen. We used Picture Achieving and Communication System (Centricity® PACS, GE Healthcare Co.) to measure the distance between the sacrococcygeal ligament and the dural sac, the length of the sacrococcygeal ligament, and the maximum depth of the caudal space. Results There were strong correlations between age, weight, height, and BSA, and the distance between the sacrococcygeal ligament and dural sac, as well as the length of the sacrococcygeal ligament. Based on these findings, a simple formula to calculate the distance between the sacrococcygeal ligament and dural sac was developed: 25 × BSA (mm). Conclusion This simple formula can accurately calculate the safe depth of the caudal epidural space to prevent unintended dural puncture during caudal block in children. However, further clinical studies based on this formula are needed to substantiate its utility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The purpose of this study was to analyze the distances between the conus medullaris and the Tuffier's line, and between the dural sac and the sacrococcygeal membrane (SCM) in the same pediatric population. Methods: Spinal magnetic resonance images and simple X-ray images of 350 patients aged from 1 month to 20 years were reviewed. Positions of the conus medullaris, Tuffier's line, the dural sac, and the SCM were identified. Each position was recorded in relation to the corresponding vertebral body segments. The distances between the conus medullaris and Tuffier's line, and between the dural sac and the SCM, were measured and then assessed according to age using an analysis of variance and a linear regression analysis. Results: The median levels of the conus medullaris and Tuffier's line were in the lower third of L1 [the first lumbar vertebral body] and the middle third of L5, respectively. The levels of the conus medullaris and Tuffier's line were lower in younger populations. The distance between the conus medullaris and Tuffier's line ranged from 1.5 to 4.75 vertebral body height. However, a narrow range of 1.5-2.5 vertebral height was observed only in children younger than 2 years. The level of the dural sac did not differ greatly by age, but the upper limit of the SCM was lower in older populations. The distance between the dural sac and the upper limit of the SCM increased with age. Conclusions: In children, there is a distance of 1.5-4.75 vertebral body height between the conus medullaris and the Tuffier's line. However, these distances were narrower among younger populations. The distance between the dural sac and the upper limit of the SCM increased with age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Transversus abdominis plane block (TAP) is a compartmental block of the anterior abdominal wall. Surgical trauma produces multisystem reactions. Anesthetic techniques can modify the neuroendocrine surgical stress response. Aim: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of TAP block on the modification of the surgical neuroendocrine stress response as well as its analgesia effect in children undergoing open inguinal hernia repair. Method: Sixty children aged 3-10 years undergoing elective unilateral open inguinal hernia repair were randomized into group I (general anesthesia) or group II (received TAP block after induction of general anesthesia). Serum cortisol, blood glucose, quality of analgesia, postoperative need for rescue analgesia, and complications and degree of satisfaction of the patients and their parents were assessed. Results: Serum cortisol level was significantly lower in group II as compared to group I intraoperatively (17.73 ± 1.51 vs 21.80 ± 2.22 lgμdl-1) and 30 min postoperatively (15.03 ± 1.56 vs 18.30 ± 1.53 lgμdl-1). Blood glucose level was significantly lower in group II as compared to group I intraoperatively (107.57 ± 3.77 vs 115.40 ± 6.30 mgμdl-1) and 30 min postoperatively (104.13 ± 3.78 vs 110.73 ± 4.83 mgμdl-1). The quality of analgesia as indicated by CHEOPS and OPS scales was significantly better in group II. The consumption of postoperative rescue analgesia was significantly higher in group I as compared to group II (27.00 ± 9.97 vs 13.00 ± 9.43 mgμkg-1). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD) may experience pain differently compared to other children, yet the evidence is equivocal regarding whether pain is heightened or dampened. This prospective observational study, therefore, was designed to compare the postoperative pain experiences in children with and without ADHD. Methods Children aged 7-17 years with a diagnosis of ADHD ( n = 119) who were scheduled for a surgical procedure requiring postoperative pain management and a matched cohort of children without ADHD were recruited ( n = 122). Postoperative pain scores and analgesic use were recorded for 1 week, as was parents' estimate of their child's return to normal activity. Results There were no differences in highest pain scores between children with ADHD (3.3 ± 2.5, 0-10 numerical rating scale) and those without (2.8 ± 1.9). Postoperative opioid use was also similar on day 1 following surgery (0.12 ± 0.3 mg·kg−1 vs 0.08 mg·kg−1 ± 0.1 morphine equivalents, respectively). Children with ADHD, however, had a significantly longer return to normal activity (4.9 ± 3.8 vs 3.8 ± 3.0 days; P < 0.05). Conclusions Results suggest that there were no differences in the postoperative pain experiences of children with and without ADHD. However, the observation that children with ADHD took longer to return to baseline activity will be important in educating parents regarding their child's postoperative experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction Lumbar punctures ( LP) in patients presenting thrombocytopenia are linked to the possibility of bleeding and spinal hematomas. The minimum platelet count required for the safe performance of spinal procedures is still under discussion. Children with some oncology diseases require routinely lumbar punctures; such patients often present thrombocytopenia, making this group an ideal population to study the association between lumbar puncture in thrombocytopenic patients and complications. Objectives To determine the platelet count of oncology children undergone lumbar punctures and the occurrence of spinal hematomas. Method Observational longitudinal study. It included a retrospective analysis of electronic medical records of oncology patients submitted to LP for intrathecal chemotherapy between January 2004 and October 2011, carried out at the 'Instituto de Medicina Integral Prof. Fernando Figueira ( IMIP)', Recife, Brazil. Results We evaluated 9088 lumbar punctures performed in 440 patients. The platelet count distribution before lumbar punctures was as follows: 25 punctures had zero to 10 000 platelets per mm3, 67 punctures had between 10 000 and 20 000 platelets per mm3, 88 had between 20 000 and 30 000 platelets per mm3, 92 punctures had between 30 000 and 40 000 platelets per mm3, 107 punctures had between 40 000 and 50 000 platelets per mm3, and 729 punctures had between 50 000 and 100 000 platelets per mm3. In this series, the incidence of bloody tap was 16.9% (1112 lumbar punctures of 6552 had more than ten erythrocytes). No complications were observed. Conclusions Even in thrombocytopenic patient, an epidural hematoma would be a relatively rare complication following lumbar puncture. Despite the large number of punctures performed on patients with platelet counts below 100 000 mm−3 ( n = 1108), further studies are necessary in order to determine a lower safe platelet count threshold for the performance of lumbar punctures in healthy patients undergoing neuraxial anesthesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Rectus sheath block can provide analgesia following umbilical hernia repair. However, conflicting reports on its analgesic effectiveness exist. No study has investigated plasma local anesthetic concentration following ultrasound-guided rectus sheath block ( USGRSB) in children. Objectives Compare the effectiveness and bupivacaine absorption following USGRSB or wound infiltration ( WI) for umbilical hernia repair in children. Methods A randomized blinded study comparing WI with USGRSB in 40 children undergoing umbilical hernia repair was performed. Group WI ( n = 20) received wound infiltration 1 mg·kg−1 0.25% bupivacaine. Group RS ( n = 20) received USGRSB 0.5 mg·kg−1 0.25% bupivacaine per side in the posterior rectus sheath compartment. Pain scores and rescue analgesia were recorded. Blood samples were drawn at 0, 10, 20, 30, 45, and 60 min. Results Patients in the WI group had a twofold increased risk of requiring morphine (hazard ratio 2.06, 95% CI 1.01, 4.20, P = 0.05). When required, median time to first morphine dose was longer in the USGRSB group (65.5 min vs 47.5 min, P = 0.049). Peak plasma bupivacaine concentration was higher following USGRSB than WI (median: 631.9 ng·ml−1 IQR: 553.9-784.1 vs 389.7 ng·ml−1 IQR: 250.5-502.7, P = 0.002). Tmax was longer in the USGRSB group (median 45 min IQR: 30-60 vs 20 min IQR: 20-45, P = 0.006). Conclusions USGRSB provides more effective analgesia than WI for umbilical hernia repair. USGRSB with 1 mg·kg−1 0.25% bupivacaine is associated with safe plasma bupivacaine concentration that peaks higher and later than WI. Caution against using larger volumes of higher concentration local anesthetic for USGRSB is advised. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The anatomy of the sacral hiatus and caudal canal is prone to significant variation, yet studies assessing this in the pediatric population remain limited. Awareness of the possible anatomical variations is critical to the safety and success of caudal epidural blocks, particularly when image guidance is not employed. This systematic review analyzes the available evidence on the clinical anatomy of the caudal canal in pediatric patients, emphasizing surface anatomy and internal anatomical variations. A literature search using three electronic databases and standard pediatric and anatomy reference texts was conducted yielding 24 primary and seven secondary English-language sources. Appreciating that our current landmark-guided approaches to the caudal canal are not well studied in the pediatric population is important for both clinicians and researchers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Early negative postoperative behavior (e- PONB) is common in children and manifests itself as emergence agitation ( EA), emergence delirium ( ED), and pain. The objective of this prospective double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial was to determine whether IV clonidine or IV fentanyl prior to surgery modifies e- PONB in children. Methods Ninety children scheduled for subumbilical surgery under sevoflurane anesthesia supplemented with regional anesthesia were randomized to either receive IV clonidine 2 mcg·kg−1, IV fentanyl 2 mcg·kg−1 or placebo ( IV saline) before surgery. Primary outcome measures were the incidence of EA, ED and pain during the first hour after awakening. Secondary outcome measures were side effects such as nausea and vomiting and delayed discharge from PACU. Results Eighty-seven children ( n = 29 per group) completed the study. EA was present in 10 children (six clonidine, none fentanyl, and four placebo, P = 0.04) whereas ED was observed in 20 children (nine clonidine, three fentanyl, and eight placebo P = 0.13). Sixteen children who received placebo had a CHIPPS score of ≥4 compared with nine children in fentanyl group and 18 children receiving clonidine ( P = 0.04). Ten children receiving fentanyl vomited during the first postoperative day, compared with six children in placebo group and none in clonidine group ( P = 0.003). Discharge from PACU was not affected. Conclusions IV fentanyl before surgery but not IV clonidine modifies e- PONB in children undergoing lower abdominal surgery under general anesthesia supplemented with regional anesthesia. The use of fentanyl in this population was also associated with reduced pain scores after awakening but with significantly greater incidence of PONV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Postdural puncture headache ( PDPH) is a relatively common complication after lumbar punctures ( LP). If conservative treatment is not sufficient within a few days and the symptoms are severe, an epidural blood patch ( EBP) may be performed. Aim A chart review to evaluate the need and effectiveness of EBPs in children and adolescents over a 10-year period at Kuopio University Hospital ( KUH) and Satakunta Central Hospital ( SCH). Methods The information system patient measures databases were reviewed to identify patients who had received an EBP. Then, the pediatric patients' medical records were compared to the characteristics of the PDPH and associated symptoms and were evaluated for the effectiveness of EBPs. Results Forty-two EBPs were performed in 41 patients (24 girls, 17 boys), 26 at KUH and 15 at SCH. Five patients, all at KUH, were children aged 3-12 years, and 36 patients were adolescents, aged 13-18 years. The indications for LPs were diagnostic ( n = 26), spinal anesthesia/analgesia ( n = 11), or introduction of chemotherapy ( n = 2), and four patients developed PDPH after an inadvertent dural puncture with an epidural needle. The first EBP provided a complete relief of symptoms in 37 children, an initial success rate of 90%, and permanent relief in 85%. At KUH, the need for EBPs after spinal anesthesia/analgesia was <1/1000 in children and 2-3/1000 in adolescents, and that after chemotherapy 1-2/1000. No serious adverse effects related to EBPs were recorded. Conclusion If PDPH symptoms are severe and are not relieved with conservative treatment, EBP is a highly effective procedure in pediatric patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]