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Quinoa's adaptation was tested in Mali, West Africa, where the difficult agroclimatic conditions are similar to those in central northern Chile. The traditional varieties used were predominantly from Chile ('A64', 'BO25', 'BO78', 'PRP', 'PRJ', 'UDeC9', 'R49', 'VI-1', 'Regalona', 'Mix'), plus two crop cultivars from Argentina ('Roja Tastina' and 'Sajama') and one varietyfrom Bolivia. Trials began in 2007 and continue today. They tested sowing in the rainy season (June-Oct.) and in the dry season (Nov.- Mar.). Pests, diseases and yields were assessed, taking into account also the grain storage conditions and more sustainable soil management (compost). Some Altiplano cultivars were recalcitrant ('A64', 'R49' and 'MIX'), while the traditional varieties from central southern Chile gave satisfactory yields (1-2 tonnes/ha). Ideally, seeds should be sown each season to avoid a reduction in germination vigour which is caused by the ambient humidity and high temperatures characteristic of in situ storage in tropical zones. The crop cycle is 90-100 days for the accessions from Chile and up to 108-119 days for the accessions from Argentina. The panicles can be attacked by fungal diseases that reduce productivity in the rainy season. The presence of phytophagous insects (Bemisia, Aphis and Aspavia genera) was observed, as well as Coccinellidae, which are their natural predators in biological control. Quinoa has the potential to improve the supply of high quality protein in Africa. Pests in the rainy season and insect infestation can be controlled by adopting ecological management practices, using saponins from the same quinoa varieties. The limiting factor is the energy requirement for using water (not readily available in the dry season) and for mechanized threshing. The population's use and acceptance of quinoa can be expected to be high, on the basis of past experience introducing other crops from America (potato, maize and tomato) to this continent and given the culinary similarity with millet and rice.

Salinity is today amongst the most widespread constraints in irrigated agriculture. Thus, salt tolerance is an agronomically important trait that is receiving increasing attention among scientists worldwide. Quinoa is tolerant to soil salinity and other adverse environmental factors, hence attracting the attention of researchers as a possible crop in a changing world scenario in which scarcity of water resources and increasing soil and water salinization are the primary causes of crop loss. Quinoa's exceptional tolerance to salinity, frost, drought and other types of abiotic stress also makes it a model species for investigating cellular, physiological, bio-molecular and morphological mechanisms at the basis of stress tolerance in halophytes and in plants as a whole. There are quinoa ecotypes adapted to valley, altiplano, salt desert, sea level and tropics, which display broad genetic variability in salinity tolerance. For this reason, quinoa represents a valuable resource for selection of the most suitable material and for breeding new varieties adapted to different environmental and geographical conditions. In this chapter, scientific studies on salinity tolerance in quinoa conducted in the last decade by numerous research groups operating in at least nine different countries are described. We focus on studies in which different quinoa genotypes are compared for their response to saline conditions, demonstrating that salt tolerance is a complex, multigenic trait involving a plethora of physiological and structural adaptations. Results available up to now regarding the effect of salinity on the nutritional properties of quinoa are reported. (Texte intégral)

An increasing number of studies have been performed in recent years in Italy on quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). Interest in this Andean seed crop is mainly due to its resistance to the abiotic stresses affecting Mediterranean agro-ecosystems, in particular drought and salinity, and to the high nutritional value of its seeds. The principal research activities in Italy currently focus on the agronomic, biological and nutritional aspects of quinoa. Several field trials were carried out at CNR-ISAFoM in Ercolano (Napoli) to evaluate, in terms of growth, yield and physiological aspects, the adaptability of quinoa to Italian pedoclimatic conditions, and the crop’s response to different agronomic management practices. Post-harvest chemical and product analyses were also performed to evaluate seed quality and aptitude for food processing. Quinoa’s tolerance to salinity stress was investigated under controlled environmental conditions at the University of Bologna, where morphological and metabolic responses were analysed. All of these studies were conducted within national and international research projects with the collaboration of foreign research centres (CEAZA, Chile) and universities (University of Copenhagen), mainly using plant material selected in Denmark or sourced from the Andean region. This chapter describes the results of the main research activities carried out in the last decade by Italian institutions and discusses the potential for the introduction of quinoa cultivation in Italian cropping systems.

La adaptación de quinua en Mali, África del Oeste, se probó dada la similitud de las condiciones agroclimáticas estresantes con el centro-norte de Chile. Las variedades campesinas usadas fueron en su mayoría de Chile (A64, BO25, BO78, PRP, PRJ, UDeC9, R49, VI-1, Regalona, Mix) más dos cultivares de cosechas Argentinas (Roja Tastina y Sajama, variedad Boliviana) y uno más proveniente de Bolivia. Los ensayos comenzaron en el 2007 y se han extendido hasta el presente. Se probaron siembras en temporada de lluvias (junio a octubre) y en temporada seca (noviembre a marzo). Se evaluaron plagas, enfermedades y rendimientos considerando las condiciones ecológicas de almacenamiento de granos y manejos más sustentables del suelo (compost). Algunos cultivares altiplánicos resultaron recalcitrantes (A64, R49 y MIX) mientras que se tuvo rendimientos más aceptables (1-2 Ton/ ha) para las variedades campesinas del centro-sur de Chile. Las semillas deben idealmente sembrarse cada estación para evitar degradación de su vigor a la germinación por la humedad ambiental y altas temperaturas debido a condiciones naturales para la conservación in situ en zonas tropicales. El ciclo de cultivo puede ser desde 90-100 días para las accesiones de Chile, hasta 108-119 días para las accesiones de Argentina. Las panojas pueden ser atacadas por hongos que deciman la producción en la estación de lluvias. Se nota también la presencia de insectos fitófagos que pertenecen a los géneros Bemisia, Aphis, y Aspavia, mientras que Coccinélidos depredan sobre éstos, como control biológico. La quinua mejoraría la oferta proteica de alta calidad en África. Posibles plagas en temporadas húmedas, ataques de insectos son tal vez controlables con manejos ecológicos, usando saponinas de las mismas quinuas. Limitante será la energía para usar aguas no fácilmente disponibles en la estación seca y para el desaponficado mecánico. El uso y aceptación por la población puede estimarse alto dada la experiencia de introducción de otros cultivos de América (papas, maíz, tomates) en este continente y la similitud culinaria con el mijo y el arroz.

La adaptación de quínoa en Mali, África del Oeste, se probó dada la similitud de las condiciones agroclimáticas estresantes con el centro-norte de Chile. Las variedades campesinas usadas fueron en mayoría de Chile (A64, BO25, BO78, PRP, PRJ, UDeC9, R49, VI-1, Regalona, Mix) más dos cultivares de cosechas Argentinas (Roja Tastina y Sajama, variedad Boliviana) y uno más proveniente de Bolivia. Los ensayos comenzaron en el 2007 y se han extendido hasta el presente. Se probaron siembras en temporada de lluvias (junio a octubre) y en temporada seca (noviembre a marzo). Se evaluaron plagas, enfermedades y rendimientos considerando las condiciones ecológicas de almacenamiento de granos y manejos más sustentables del suelo (compost). Los resultados indican que algunos cultivares altiplánicos resultaron recalcitrantes (A64, R49 y MIX) mientras se tuvo rendimientos más aceptables (1-2 Ton/ha) para las variedades campesinas del centro-sur de Chile. Las semillas deben idealmente sembrarse cada estación para evitar degradación de su vigor a la germinación por la humedad ambiental y altas temperaturas debido a condiciones naturales para la conservación in situ en zonas tropicales. El ciclo de cultivo puede ser de 90-100 días para las accesiones de Chile, a 108-119 días para las accesiones de Argentina. Las panojas pueden ser atacadas por hongos que deciman la producción en la estación de lluvias. Se nota también la presencia de insectos fitófagos que pertenecen a los géneros Bemisia, Aphis, y Aspavia, mientras que Coccinélidos depredan sobre éstos, como control biológico. El potencial de mejorar con el uso de la quínoa la oferta proteica y de un alimento de alta calidad en África es alto. Posibles plagas en temporadas húmedas, ataques de insectos son tal vez controlables con manejos ecológicos, usando saponinas de las mismas quínoas. Limitante será la energía para usar aguas no fácilmente disponibles en la estación seca y para el desaponficado mecánico. El uso y aceptación por la población puede estimarse alto dada la experiencia de introducción de otros cultivos de América (papas, maíz, tomates) en este continente. (Texte intégral)

Saponins (SAPs) are a diverse family of plant secondary metabolites and due to their biological activities, SAPs can be utilised as biopesticides and as therapeutic compounds. Given their widespread industrial use, a search for alternative sources of SAPs is a priority. Quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa Willd) is a valuable food source that is gaining importance worldwide for its nutritional and nutraceutical properties. SAPs from quinoa seed coats could represent a new sustainable source to obtain these compounds in high quantities due to the increasing production and worldwide expansion of the crop. This research aims to characterise saponins of seed coat waste products from six different quinoa varieties for their potential use as a saponin source. Gas chromatography (GC)- and Liquid chromatography (LC)- with mass spectrometry (MS) were applied for qualitative and relative quantitative analysis of saponins. GC–MS led to the identification of three main aglycones, oleanolic acid (Ole), hederagenin (Hed), and a phytolaccagenic acid (Phy), while LC–MS enabled characterization of 24 SAPs with varying sugar moieties. Hed was the most abundant aglycone, followed by Phy and Oledepending on the genotype. Saponin distribution and relative abundances are discussed in the light of genotype provenance and agronomic features. Improved knowledge on the phytochemicals present in quinoa varieties might help in finding valuable and sustainable uses for quinoa SAPs in agroindustry as biopesticides as well as in the production of food and pharmaceuticals.

To further our understanding of the mechanisms governing salt stress responses and adaptation in halophytes, we explored morphological, metabolic, and gene expression responses to high salinity in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd). The main objective of this study was to analyze selected responsive genes in a time-course experiment to test for expression kinetics and to compare short-term salt-induced effects at the transcript level between two Chilean landraces belonging to different ecotypes. Quinoa genotypes exhibit a large variability in their responses to salinity, but it is not clear whether this is strictly related to the ecotype to which they belong. We tested this hypothesis by comparing the expression levels of genes involved in growth, ion homeostasis, abscisic acid (ABA) biosynthesis, perception, and conjugate cleavage, polyamine (PA) biosynthesis and oxidation, and proline biosynthesis as well as genes encoding ABA-dependent and −independent transcription factors. Landraces R49 (salares ecotype) and Villarrica (VR, coastal-lowlands ecotype) were analyzed from 0.5 to 120Âh after transfer to saline (300ÂmM NaCl) or non-saline (control) medium. All the genes, except CqSOS1 and CqNHX, were investigated here for the first time in quinoa under salt stress. Transcript levels were determined by quantitative Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis. Germination, seedling growth, ABA, and PA contents were evaluated in parallel. Even though on saline medium germination was inhibited in VR but not in R49, seedling growth reduction at 120Âh was not substantially different in the two landraces. The ABA biosynthetic enzyme NCED was the most strongly salt-induced gene; ABA content was similarly enhanced (shoots) or unaffected (roots) in both R49 and VR. NaCl treatment also altered transcript levels of some PA metabolic enzymes and the PA profile leading to an enhanced ratio between the higher PAs and putrescine. All other genes also exhibited similar expression profiles in response to salinity in the two landraces especially in roots, while in shoots some differences were observed. Our results provide new information indicating that crucial salt adaptation strategies at the molecular level and in terms of ABA and PA contents are shared by the coastal-lowlands and salares landraces; however, the timing of the onset of transcriptional changes (e.g., NCED, ABF3, and RD22) may reflect genotype-dependent constitutive and/or inducible adaptive strategies.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) is an ancient Andean seed-producing crop well known for its exceptional nutritional properties and resistance to adverse environmental conditions, such as salinity and drought. Seed storage proteins, amino acid composition, and bioactive compounds play a crucial role in determining the nutritional value of quinoa. Seeds harvested from three Chilean landraces of quinoa, one belonging to the salares ecotype (R49) and two to the coastal-lowlands ecotype, VI-1 and Villarrica (VR), exposed to two levels of salinity (100 and 300 mM NaCl) were used to conduct a sequential extraction of storage proteins in order to obtain fractions enriched in albumins/globulins, 11S globulin and in prolamin-like proteins. The composition of the resulting protein fractions was analyzed by one- and two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Results confirmed a high polymorphism in seed storage proteins; the two most representative genotype-specific bands of the albumin/globulin fraction were the 30- and 32-kDa bands, while the 11S globulin showed genotype-specific polymorphism for the 40- and 42-kDa bands. Spot analysis by mass spectrometry followed by in silico analyses were conducted to identify the proteins whose expression changed most significantly in response to salinity in VR. Proteins belonging to several functional categories (i.e., stress protein, metabolism, and storage) were affected by salinity. Other nutritional and functional properties, namely amino acid profiles, total polyphenol (TPC) and flavonoid (TFC) contents, and antioxidant activity (AA) of protein extracts were also analyzed. With the exception of Ala and Met in R49, all amino acids derived from protein hydrolysis were diminished in seeds from salt-treated plants, especially in landrace VI-1. By contrast, several free amino acids were unchanged or increased by salinity in R49 as compared with VR and VI-1, suggesting a greater tolerance in the salares landrace. VR had the highest TPC and AA under non-saline conditions. Salinity increased TPC in all three landraces, with the strongest increase occurring in R49, and enhanced radical scavenging capacity in R49 and VR. Overall, results show that salinity deeply altered the seed proteome and amino acid profiles and, in general, increased the concentration of bioactive molecules and AA of protein extracts in a genotype-dependent manner.

none 5 no This research was supported by funds from the University of Bologna (RFO2014) to S.B.and from the University of Urbino (RFO 2014) to V.S.. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd), an ancient Andean seed crop, exhibits exceptional nutritional properties and resistance to abiotic stress. The species' tolerance to heavy metals has, however, not yet been investigated nor its ability to take up and translocate chromium (Cr). This study aimed to investigate the metabolic adjustments occurring upon exposure of quinoa to several concentrations (0.01–5mM) of CrCl3. Young hydroponically grown plants were used to evaluate Cr uptake, growth, oxidative stress, and other biochemical parameters three and/or seven days after treatment. Leaves accumulated the lowest amounts of Cr, while roots and stems accumulated the most at low and at high metal concentrations, respectively. Fresh weight and photosynthetic pigments were reduced only by the higher Cr(III) doses. Substantially increased lipid peroxidation, hydrogen peroxide, and proline levels were observed only with 5mM Cr(III). Except for a significant decrease at day 7 with 5mM Cr(III), total polyphenols and flavonoids maintained control levels in Cr(III)-treated plants, whereas antioxidant activity increased in a dose-dependent manner. Maximum polyamine accumulation was observed in 1mM CrCl3-treated plants. Even though α- and γ-tocopherols also showed enhanced levels only with the 1mM concentration, tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT, EC 2.6.1.5) activity increased under Cr(III) treatment in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Taken together, results suggest that polyamines, tocopherols, and TAT activity could contribute to tolerance to 1mM Cr(III), but not to the highest concentration that, instead, generated oxidative stress. open Scoccianti, Valeria; Bucchini, Anahi E.; Iacobucci, Marta; Ruiz, Karina B.; Biondi, Stefania Scoccianti, Valeria; Bucchini, Anahi E.; Iacobucci, Marta; Ruiz, Karina B.; Biondi, Stefania

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a highly salt-tolerant species subdivided into five ecotypes and exhibiting broad intra-specific differences in tolerance levels. In a greenhouse study, Chilean landraces belonging either to the salares (R49) or coastal lowlands (VI-1, Villarrica) ecotype with contrasting agro-ecological origins were investigated for their responses to high salinity. The effects of two levels of salinity, 100 (T1) and 300 (T2) mM NaCl, on plant growth and on some physiological parameters were measured. Leaf and root Na(+) accumulation differed among landraces. T2 reduced growth and seed yield in all landraces with maximum inhibition relative to controls in R49. Salinity negatively affected chlorophyll and total polyphenol content (TPC) in VI-1 and Villarrica but not R49. Germination on saline or control media of seeds harvested from plants treated or not with NaCl was sometimes different; the best performing landrace was R49 insofar as 45-65% of seeds germinated on 500 mM NaCl-containing medium. In all landraces, average seedling root length declined strongly with increasing NaCl concentration, but roots of R49 were significantly longer than those of VI-1 and Villarrica up to 300 mM NaCl. Salt caused increases in seed TPC relative to controls, but radical scavenging capacity was higher only in seeds from T2 plants of R49. Total SDS-extractable seed proteins were resolved into distinct bands (10-70 kDa) with some evident differences between landraces. Salt-induced changes in protein patterns were landrace-specific. The responses to salinity of the salares landrace are discussed in relation to its better adaptation to an extreme environment.