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Effect of depuration on content of geosmin in pikeperch (Sander lucioperca) produced in a commercial RAS farm was examined during a 15-day period. Concentrations of geosmin in the fish were related to geosmin content in the water. For depuration, half of the water volume in a 230 m3 production tank was replaced daily with geosmin-free water. After 8 days of depuration and absence of feeding, content of geosmin in the fish was reduced from 710 ± 245 ng/kg to 165 ± 50 ng/kg (mean ± SD, p < .01). Additional depuration for 7 days only reduced the geosmin content to 135 ± 24 ng/kg. Geosmin concentration in the water was initially 34 ng/L but declined to 10 ng/L after 15 days. Changes in geosmin concentrations in water of the depuration tank indicated that geosmin was released by the fish during the depuration. In addition to removal of geosmin, the depuration also decreased concentrations of 28 different volatile compounds from the fish. Sensory analysis showed decrease in intensity of geosmin flavor upon depuration and improved the overall sensory quality of the fish after 2 weeks of depuration. Our study shows that geosmin and other off-flavors in pikeperch from RAS production can efficiently be removed to be a level that is below the threshold to most consumers.

Ultra-high temperature (UHT) processed lactose-reduced milk containing added green tea extract (GTE) at two concentrations (0.1% and 0.25%) was stored at 22 ± 2 °C for one year. The effect of GTE addition on physical stability, protein binding, and sensory quality was evaluated. Sedimentation in skim milk and creaming of full fat milk were inhibited by addition of GTE. The formation of Maillard-related flavour compounds was inhibited during storage as determined by dynamic headspace GC–MS. Using Western blot analysis, milk proteins were found to be highly conjugated to polyphenols. Addition of GTE before UHT treatment resulted in increased bitterness and astringency in UHT milk and this remained during storage. Even though GTE addition improved the physical stability and inhibited Maillard reactions in the milk, the taste and flavour contribution from GTE was dominating throughout storage, and alternative sources of polyphenols should be explored for increasing shelf-life stability of long-life milk.

The antagonistic activities of native Debaryomyces hansenii strains isolated from Danish cheese brines were evaluated against contaminating molds in the dairy industry. Determination of chromosome polymorphism by use of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) revealed a huge genetic heterogeneity among the D. hansenii strains, which was reflected in intra-species variation at the phenotypic level. 11 D. hansenii strains were tested for their ability to inhibit germination and growth of contaminating molds, frequently occurring at Danish dairies, i.e., Cladosporium inversicolor, Cladosporium sinuosum, Fusarium avenaceum, Mucor racemosus, and Penicillium roqueforti. Especially the germination of C. inversicolor and P. roqueforti was significantly inhibited by cell-free supernatants of all D. hansenii strains. The underlying factors behind the inhibitory effects of the D. hansenii cell-free supernatants were investigated. Based on dynamic headspace sampling followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (DHS-GC-MS), 71 volatile compounds (VOCs) produced by the D. hansenii strains were identified, including 6 acids, 22 alcohols, 15 aldehydes, 3 benzene derivatives, 8 esters, 3 heterocyclic compounds, 12 ketones, and 2 phenols. Among the 71 identified VOCs, inhibition of germination of C. inversicolor correlated strongly with three VOCs, i.e., 3-methylbutanoic acid, 2-pentanone as well as acetic acid. For P. roqueforti, two VOCs correlated with inhibition of germination, i.e., acetone and 2-phenylethanol, of which the latter also correlated strongly with inhibition of mycelium growth. Low half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) were especially observed for 3-methylbutanoic acid, i.e., 6.32–9.53 × 10–5 and 2.00–2.67 × 10–4 mol/L for C. inversicolor and P. roqueforti, respectively. For 2-phenylethanol, a well-known quorum sensing molecule, the IC50 was 1.99–7.49 × 10–3 and 1.73–3.45 × 10–3 mol/L for C. inversicolor and P. roqueforti, respectively. For acetic acid, the IC50 was 1.35–2.47 × 10–3 and 1.19–2.80 × 10–3 mol/L for C. inversicolor and P. roqueforti, respectively. Finally, relative weak inhibition was observed for 2-pentanone and acetone. The current study shows that native strains of D. hansenii isolated from Danish brines have antagonistic effects against specific contaminating molds and points to the development of D. hansenii strains as bioprotective cultures, targeting cheese brines and cheese surfaces.

This study explored the amino acid utilisation by Debaryomyces hansenii and Yamadazyma triangularis grown on cheese agar at 16 °C and 25 °C. The consumption of amino acids was species- and strain-dependent and greatly affected by temperature. For D. hansenii, the consumption of most amino acids was higher at 25 °C compared with 16 °C, contrary to Y. triangularis. Debaryomyces hansenii produced more 2- and 3-methyl-butanal, 3-methyl-1-butanol, and 2-phenylethanol, and consumed more of the corresponding amino acids, isoleucine, leucine, and phenylalanine, respectively, than Y. triangularis at 25 °C. Yamadazyma triangularis produced more volatile sulphur compounds, and consumed more of their precursor, methionine, than D. hansenii at 16 °C. Moreover, Y. triangularis seemed able to markedly consume the volatile sulphur compounds at 25 °C. These results may contribute to the selection of appropriate yeasts to be used in the cheese industry.

The effect of epigallocatechin gallate enriched green tea extract (GTE) on flavor, Maillard reactions and protein modifications in lactose-hydrolyzed (LH) ultrahigh temperature (UHT) processed milk was examined during storage at 40 °C for up to 42 days. Addition of GTE inhibited the formation of Strecker aldehydes by up to 95% compared to control milk, and the effect was similar when GTE was added either before or after UHT treatment. Release of free amino acids, caused by proteolysis, during storage was also decreased in GTE-added milk either before or after UHT treatment compared to control milk. Binding of polyphenols to milk proteins was observed in both fresh and stored milk samples. The inhibition of Strecker aldehyde formation by GTE may be explained by two different mechanisms; inhibition of proteolysis during storage by GTE or binding of amino acids and proteins to the GTE polyphenols.

Accurate measurement of chemosensory function is challenging. For assessing olfactory function, the most commonly applied test is the olfactory identification test. The ability to choose the correct descriptor for an odour among different false descriptors is central for the efficacy of these tests. Across several validation studies of the identification tests, the use of closely related descriptors was found to cause low identification rates. We hypothesised that this could be caused by a high chemical resemblance between the odorant and the listed odour descriptor options. By analysing the chemical overlap between the odorant and the odours used as descriptors, we investigated if chemical resemblance could be a possible confounder in olfactory identification tests.We used gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to detect volatile compounds in the falsely identified odorant. The headspace analysis was repeated on three samples to ensure correct chemical compound detection. Compounds previously identified in odours of false descriptors were identified through a literature review.This study identified a widespread chemical overlap between citrus odours commonly used as descriptors in clinical olfactory identification tests, which can complicate the distinction between normosmic and anosmic patients.These findings emphasise the importance of thorough considerations when selecting new odorant descriptors during the modification of odour identification tests and the importance of revalidation after modifying descriptors.The degree of chemical resemblance between the odours used as descriptors can be used to adjust the level of difficulty in identification tests; contrasted odours will increase the specificity of detecting anosmia in a clinical test, whereas odours with larger chemical resemblance may be more sensitive when evaluating subtle effects of e.g. olfactory training.

A comprehensive technical feasibility study was conducted of a bioethanol demonstration plant with the aim of converting parts of an existing fuel-grade bioethanol production into a more valuable solvent-grade ethanol. The study focuses on the separation unit, which consists of three consecutive distillation columns and a dehydration step using molecular sieves. This separation unit did not permit sufficient removal of crotonaldehyde and methanol for obtaining solvent-grade ethanol. Therefore, an additional distillation column after the dehydration step was investigated by simulation. It is operated at subatmospheric pressure and enables simultaneous removal of methanol, crotonaldehyde, and water in the distillate. The distillate meets the fuel-grade ethanol specifications, while the bottom product meets the solvent-grade specifications. It enables around 70% solvent-grade ethanol production and employs a vacuum pump that is already used in the considered plant. A stationary operating point is characteriz...

In this study, we compare the effects of single- and double-cycle HP treatments at 600 MPa on inactivation of the natural microflora and physicochemical properties of whole and skimmed milk of high bacterial load. The results show that two-cycled HP (2 × 2.5 min) was more effective (P 0.05) in physicochemical properties of milk in comparison to single cycled HP (1 × 5 min). In addition to the expected milk protein structure changes, HP at 600 MPa caused only slight effects on milk fat and lactose. Minor decreases in levels of short chain fatty acids were observed with the cycled treatments, and the volatiles in general decreased after HP treatment, depending mostly on the pressure time but also on cycling in skimmed milk. The study confirmed the superior effect of two-cycle HP on microbial inactivation, and shows a slightly better preservation of the physical-chemical milk quality. Industrial relevance Multi-cycling HP has been shown to be advantageous for microbial inactivation, but limited information is available regarding the effect on milk components in whole milk or skimmed milk. The present study compares the psychochemical properties of whole and skimmed milk processed by multi-cycling in comparison to single cycle HP treatment. Double cycled HP presented a superior effect on microbial inactivation and slightly better preservation of milk quality than one continuous HP.

Ethanol concentration in batters prepared with alcoholic beverages was measured upon deep frying, using static headspace GC-MS. The concentration decreased dramatically during the first two minutes of frying resulting in a concentration of maximum 0.28 ± 0.03 g/100 g. Frying for another two minutes had an insignificant effect on the concentrations. The measured concentrations resulted in 0.14 g ethanol per serving, which is considered very low and not problematic for human consumption. When the batter was fried as a coating for fish, the concentrations were slightly higher than when fried alone, namely 0.69 ± 0.21 g/100 g after two minutes of frying.

Made available in DSpace on 2020-12-10T19:41:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2019-10-31 Danish Council for Strategic Research Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) Aim To determine major sources of microbially produced geosmin in the commercially important aquaculture fish species tilapia. Methods and Results Abundance and composition of geosmin-producing bacteria in water and fish biosphere (intestine, digesta, and fins) of Nile tilapia (Oreachromis niloticus) raised in net cages in Brazilian freshwater farms were examined. By combining qPCR of the geosmin synthase geoA gene and 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing to identify potential geosmin-producing organisms, we observed that the proportion and composition of geosmin producers appeared to be rather similar in the water, digesta, intestinal mucous, and on skin, making up about 0.1-0.2% of the total bacterial densities. A high proportion of Cyanobacteria and other putative geosmin producers affiliated to the Actinomycetales were identified in the intestinal mucous layer. The main uptake site for geosmin in fish is traditionally assumed to be through the gill surface, but the present results suggest that uptake by the intestinal tract may represent a major source of geosmin uptake in fish. Conclusion The high abundance of geosmin-producing bacteria in the intestinal mucous layer and digesta may indicate that the digestive system in fish is an important, but hitherto overlooked, source of geosmin and likely other off-flavors in fish. Aalborg Univ, Dept Chem & Biosci, Aalborg, Denmark Univ Copenhagen, Dept Plant & Environm Sci, Copenhagen, Denmark Univ Copenhagen, Dept Food Sci, Sect Design & Consumer Behav, Copenhagen, Denmark Sao Paulo State Agribusiness Technol Jau, Jau, Brazil Univ Estadual Paulista Julio Mesquite Filho, Inst Biociencias, Dept Parasitol, Botucatu, SP, Brazil Univ Estadual Paulista Julio Mesquite Filho, Inst Biociencias, Dept Parasitol, Botucatu, SP, Brazil Danish Council for Strategic Research: 3050-00008A FAPESP: 3050-00008A3050-00008A FAPESP: 2013/50504-5

In recent decades, intensive selective breeding programs have allowed the development of disease-resistant and flavorsome apple cultivars while leading to a gradual decline of a large number of ancient varieties in many countries. However, the re-evaluation of such cultivars could lead to the production new apple-based products with health beneficial properties and/or unique flavor qualities. Herein, we report the comprehensive characterization of juices obtained from 86 old, mostly Danish, apple cultivars, by employing traditional analysis (ion chromatography,◦Brix, headspace gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC–MS), and panel test evaluation) as well as an innovative nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based screening method developed by Bruker for fruit juices, known as Spin Generated Fingerprint (SGF) Profiling™. Principal component analysis showed large differences in aroma components and sensory characteristics, including odd peculiar odors and flavors such as apricot and peach, and very different levels of phenolic compounds, acids and sugars among the analyzed juices. Moreover, we observed a tendency for late-season juices to be characterized by higher◦Brix values, sugar content and they were perceived to be sweeter and more flavor intense than early-season juices. Our findings are useful for the production of specialty vintage-cultivar apple juices or mixed juices to obtain final products that are characterized both by healthy properties and peculiar sensory attributes.

The influence of fermentation temperatures (8°C, 16°C, and 32°C) and yeast levels (2%, 4%, and 6% of the flour) on the formation of volatile compounds in the crust of whole meal wheat bread was investigated. The fermentation times were regulated to optimum bread height for each treatment. The volatile compounds were extracted by dynamic headspace extraction and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The results were evaluated using multivariate data analysis and ANOVA. In all crust samples 28 volatile compounds out of 58 compounds were identified and the other 30 compounds were tentatively identified. Higher fermentation temperatures promoted the formation of Maillard reaction products 3-methyl-1-butanol, pyrazine, 2-ethylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-3-methylpyrazine, 2-vinylpyrazine, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone, 3-(methylsulfanyl)-propanal, and 5-methyl-2-furancarboxaldehyde whereas at lower temperature (8°C) the formation of 2- and 3-methylbutanal was favored. Higher levels of yeast promoted the formation of 3-methyl-1-butanol, 2-methyl-1-propanol and 3-(methylsulfanyl)-propanal, whereas hexanal was promoted in the crust fermented with lower yeast level.

The effect of two Oenococcus oeni strains, Viniflora® CiNe™ and Viniflora® CH11, with and without cinnamoyl esterase activity, respectively, on the contents of the hydroxycinnamic acids (HCAs) p-coumaric and ferulic acid, and their respective volatile phenols, 4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol, was investigated over six months in Cabernet Sauvignon wines inoculated with two different Brettanomyces bruxellensis strains, CBS 73 and CBS 2499. Both CiNe™ and CH11 showed growth and malolactic fermentation in the wines. There were no clear growth interactions between B. bruxellensis and O. oeni. Furthermore, B. bruxellensis did not inhibit MLF by CiNe™ or CH11. The HCA concentrations in all wines increased until 114 days of fermentation, after which they decreased from day 114 to day 180. Wines inoculated with CiNe™ had the highest concentrations of HCAs throughout the fermentations. While CiNe™ degraded more of the tartaric ester bound forms of HCAs into free HCAs, there was no significant difference in the production of volatile phenols as compared with wines inoculated with CH11. However, there was a significant difference between wines with the two strains of B. bruxellensis in the level of volatile phenols and HCAs on day 180. Thus, the level of volatile phenols in wine depends more on strain differences of B. bruxellensis than on cinnamoyl esterase activity of O. oeni.

Nowadays, the use of non-Saccharomyces yeasts in combination with Saccharomyces cerevisiae is being recognised to enhance the analytical composition of the wines. The aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of indigenous non-Saccharomyces yeasts on the flavour character of wines from the cool-climate grape cultivar Solaris in Denmark. The volatile and non-volatile compounds as well as the sensory properties of wines were evaluated. Solaris wines with Hanseniaspora uvarum sequentially inoculated with S. cerevisiae produced a larger amount of glycerol as well as heptyl acetate and 2-phenylethyl acetate. This co-culture fermentation also produced higher amounts of ethyl acetate and acetic acid, reducing the possibility of its use in winemaking. Three Metschnikowia strains, a M. chrysoperlae strain and two M. fructicola strains, gave a comparable production of volatile compounds. These wines were characterised by several floral and fruity attributes. The Metschnikowia strains turned out to be promising in winemaking from Solaris grapes.

Caraway (Carum carvi) is used as a vegetable; more commonly, the fruits are used to flavour foods or as a preservative. Quality is a key issue; however, little is known about the respective influences of type of material and location and the interaction of these factors on essential oil composition. In this study, wild populations and commercial cultivars from the Nordic germplasm collection were examined. Plants were grown in two locations (Iceland and Sweden) and essential oil composition and phenotypic characteristics identified. Carvone and limonene were the two major compounds detected at levels around 14 and 70% of total peak area, respectively. Also p-cymene, trans-β-ocimene, α-Terpinolene and myrcene each were detected at levels above or around 2%. In total, 47 compounds were detected of which 40 were identified. The effects of material type and location were established, where location had a greater impact than genotype. In 15 out of the 35 compounds detected at levels below 2%, significant location-dependent differences were detected. For morphological traits, genotype had a more significant effect than location.

The influence of fermentation temperatures (8, 16, and 32°C) and yeast levels (2, 4, and 6%) on the formation of volatile compounds in the crumb of whole-meal wheat bread was investigated. Volatile compounds were extracted by dynamic headspace extraction and analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Results were evaluated with multivariate data analysis and ANOVA. Bread fermented at a high temperature (32°C) had higher peak areas of the Maillard reaction products 2-furancarboxaldehyde, 2-acetylfuran, 2-methylpyrazine, and phenylacetaldehyde compared with bread fermented at lower fermentation temperatures. Bread fermented at low temperatures (8 and 16°C) was characterized by having higher peak areas of the fermentation products 3-methylbutanal, 2-methylbutanal, ethyl acetate, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl propanoate, and 3-methylbutanol. Fermentation of bread with 6% yeast resulted in a higher peak area of the important fermentation product 2-phenylethanol. It also reduced the peak areas of important lipi...

Understanding the genetic architecture of fruit quality traits is crucial to target breeding of apple (Malus domestica L.) cultivars. We linked genotype and phenotype information by combining genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) generated single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers with fruit flavor volatile data, sugar and acid content, and historical trait data from a gene bank collection. Using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of apple juice samples, we identified 49 fruit volatile organic compounds (VOCs). We found a very variable content of VOCs, especially for the esters, among 149 apple cultivars. We identified convincing associations for the acetate esters especially butyl acetate and hexyl acetate on chromosome 2 in a region of several alcohol acyl-transferases including AAT1. For sucrose content and for fructose and sucrose in percentage of total sugars, we revealed significant SNP associations. Here, we suggest a vacuolar invertase close to significant SNPs for this association as candidate gene. Harvest date was in strong SNP association with a NAC transcription factor gene and sequencing identified two haplotypes associated with harvest date. The study shows that SNP marker characterization of a gene bank collection can be successfully combined with new and historical trait data for association studies. Suggested candidate genes may contribute to an improved understanding of the genetic basis for important traits and simultaneously provide tools for targeted breeding using marker-assisted selection (MAS).

There has been a growing interest towards creating defined mixed starter cultures for alcoholic fermentations. Previously, metabolite differences between single and mixed cultures have been explored at the endpoint of fermentations rather than during fermentations. To create metabolic footprints of metabolites that discriminate single and mixed yeast cultures at two key time-points during mixed culture alcoholic fermentations. 1H NMR- and GC–MS-based metabolomics was used to identify metabolites that discriminate single and mixed cultures of Lachancea thermotolerans (LT) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (SC) during alcoholic fermentations. Twenty-two metabolites were found when comparing single LT and mixed cultures, including both non-volatiles (carbohydrate, amino acid and acids) and volatiles (higher alcohols, esters, ketones and aldehydes). Fifteen of these compounds were discriminatory only at the death phase initiation (T1) and fifteen were discriminatory only at the death phase termination (T2) of LT in mixed cultures. Eight metabolites were discriminatory at both T1 and T2. These results indicate that specific metabolic changes may be descriptive of different LT growth behaviors. Fifteen discriminatory metabolites were found when comparing single SC and mixed cultures. These metabolites were all volatiles, and twelve metabolites were discriminatory only at T2, indicating that LT-induced changes in volatiles occur during the death phase of LT in mixed cultures and not during their initial growth stage. This work provides a detailed insight into yeast metabolites that differ between single and mixed cultures, and these data may be used for understanding and eventually predicting yeast metabolic changes in wine fermentations.

The ability of a protease added during mashing in a pilot-scale brew to release protein-derived thiols as antioxidants and thereby improve flavor stability during storage was investigated. The protease treatment resulted in increased protein-derived thiol concentrations in fresh beer produced at a pilot scale compared with a control beer without protease treatment, and electron spin resonance lag phase analysis also demonstrated improved oxidative stability of the protease-treated beer. However, the protease treatment also resulted in high sulfite levels and, therefore, it was not possible to conclude that the improvement in oxidative stability was solely a direct effect of increased levels of protein-derived thiol concentrations. The development of papery character and volatile linear aldehydes was inhibited when the protease-treated beer was stored at 35°C but the protease treatment also resulted in increased concentrations of free amino acids in beer, resulting in a more fruity aged or vinous character...

There is a growing market for the use of hydrolysates from animal side-streams for production of high-protein supplements. However, there can be issues with development of off-flavors, either due to the raw material in question or due to the hydrolysis process itself. This study examined the development of volatile compounds during hydrolysis of hemoglobin. Briefly, porcine hemoglobin was hydrolyzed by 0.5% papain for up to 5 h, and the development of volatile compounds was analyzed via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The results showed that there was significant development of a number of volatile compounds with time, e.g., certain Maillard reaction and lipid oxidation products, which are likely candidates for the aroma development during hydrolysis. Furthermore, it was shown that development of a number of the volatiles was due to the hydrolysis process, as these compounds were not found in a control without enzyme.

Effect of water treatment on concentrations of the off-flavor geosmin was examined in a RAS facility for commercial production of pikeperch (Stizostedion lucioperca). Short-term (minutes) and long-term (days) variations in concentrations of geosmin were measured in grow-out tanks, at inlet and outlet of biofilters and at the denitrification unit. Geosmin in water of the grow-out tanks ranged typically from

The sensory quality of chocolate is widely determined by the qualitative and quantitative composition of volatile compounds resulting from microbial metabolism during fermentation, and Maillard reactions taking place during drying, roasting and conching. The influence of applying mixed starter cultures on the formation of flavour precursors, composition of volatile aroma compounds and sensory profile was investigated in cocoa inoculated with cultures encompassing a highly aromatic strain of Pichia kluyveri or a pectinolytic strain of Kluyveromyces marxianus, and compared to commercially fermented heap and tray cocoa. Although only minor differences in the concentration of free amino acids and reducing sugars was measured, identification and quantification by dynamic headspace gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS/GC–MS) revealed pronounced differences in the composition of volatiles in roasted cocoa liquors and finished chocolates. 19 of the 56 volatile compounds identified in the chocolates were found in significantly higher amounts in the tray fermented sample, whilst significantly higher amounts of 2-methoxyphenol was measured in the two inoculated chocolates. The P. kluyveri inoculated chocolate was characterized by a significantly higher concentration of phenylacetaldehyde and the K. marxianus inoculated chocolate by significantly higher amounts of benzyl alcohol, phenethyl alcohol, benzyl acetate and phenethyl acetate compared to a spontaneously fermented control. Sensory profiling described the heap and tray fermented chocolates as sweet with cocoa and caramel flavours, whilst the inoculated chocolates were characterized as fruity, acid and bitter with berry, yoghurt and balsamic flavours. The choice of fermentation technique had the greatest overall impact on the volatile aroma and sensory profile, but whilst the application of starter cultures did affect the volatile aroma profile, differences were too small to significantly change consumer perception of the chocolates as compared to a spontaneously fermented control.

Pangas Pangasianodon hypophthalmus and tilapia Oreochromis niloticus were culti- vated for 6 mo in earthen ponds in Bangladesh to examine occurrence of the off-flavour geosmin in water and fish and to test procedures for reduction of off-flavour. In the ponds (~1 m depth and area of 400 m 2 ), the average geosmin concentration was 3.9 ng l �1 (range 0.2 to 20 ng l �1 ). No effects of season or water treatment (sand filtration or probiotic microbes) were found. The content of geosmin in the fish was 21 ng kg �1 (range: 0.0 to 91 ng kg �1 ) for pangas and 17 ng kg �1 (range: 0.0 to 68 ng kg �1 ) for tilapia. Water treatment reduced the geosmin content by 56 to 74% in pan- gas, but no effect was found in tilapia. Likewise, depuration for ≥12 h in groundwater lowered the geosmin content in pangas (by 65 to 90%) but not in tilapia. Sensory analysis indicated a positive effect of both water treatment and depuration, and the fish were graded 'no or mild flavour' after such treatment, compared to 'strong off-flavour' in controls. Abundance analyses of known off- flavour producing microorganisms (streptomycete bacteria and cyanobacteria) showed a high density of streptomycetes (0.5 to 13% of the bacterial population), while cyanobacteria made up a maximum of 9.3% of the phytoplankton biomass or were absent. This first study on off-flavours in pangas and tilapia in Bangladeshi ponds indicates that geosmin was not a major off-flavour in the fish, but improvement of sensory quality by water treatment and depuration suggests that other, unidentified off-flavours were present in the fish.

Baker's yeast is used for bread fermentation throughout the world and it is very important for the bread quality. The scope of this work was to investigate how the aroma of wheat bread crumb is influenced by yeast fermentation by comparing the aroma formation of bread fermented by seven commercial baker's yeasts. Dough samples were fermented with equal number of yeast cells to equal height and then baked. The volatile components were extracted by dynamic headspace sampling and analyzed by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. The dough fermentation time varied significantly from 40 to 100 min. The fermentation compounds 2,3-butanedione and 1-propanol were found in significantly higher concentration in bread fermented with the four baker's yeasts having the shortest fermentation times. Furthermore, 3-methylbutanal, 2-methyl-1-propanol and ethyl acetate were found in significantly higher concentration in two of the yeasts. On the other hand phenylacetaldehyde and 2-phenylethanol were found in significantly higher concentration in bread fermented with two other yeasts. It can be concluded that use of the seven commercial baker's yeasts for bread fermentation resulted in significantly different bread aroma profiles.

Sliced saveloy samples were inoculated with monocultures of four potential spoilage bacteria and studied during a four week storage period. The objective was to investigate the resulting changes in the composition of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and the sensory quality of the product. Based on the sensory scores and the VOC composition Brochothrix thermosphacta, Chryseomonas luteola and Carnobacterium maltaromaticum were found to have a high spoilage potential in saveloy samples subjected to consumer simulated storage during the fourth week. Inoculation with Leuconostoc carnosum only resulted in a low level of spoilage. The sensory changes in the saveloy samples were modeled based on the VOC composition using Partial Least Squares Regression. The changes in the six sensory descriptors were closely related to the amount of diacetyl, acetoin, 2- and 3-methylbutanol, 2- and 3-methylbutanal and 2-methylpropanol found in the samples. These compounds are therefore potentially important for the shelf-life of sliced saveloy.

The consumers of today have an increasing interest in high quality bread with appealing aroma. The scope of this work is to investigate how aroma in wheat bread crumb is influenced by different fermentation conditions: amount of yeast (20, 40 and 60 g/kg flour) and fermentation temperature (5, 15 and 35 °C). Dough samples were fermented to equal height and baked, and the aroma compounds from the bread were extracted by dynamic headspace extraction and analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Quantification of the aroma compounds was performed by multiple headspace extraction. The most aroma active compounds identified were 3-methylbutanal, (E)-2-nonenal, 3-methyl-1-butanol, and 2,3-butanedione. Increasing the yeast concentration was found to increase formation of the majority of the compounds formed from the yeast metabolism, with 2,3-butanedione and phenylacetaldehyde as the most aroma active compounds. High fermentation temperature (15 and 35 °C) increased formation of many lipid oxidation compounds, with hexanal and heptanal having the highest odor activity values. Low fermentation temperature (5 °C) was found to increase formation of the three esters ethyl acetate, ethyl hexanoate, and ethyl octanoate, with ethyl hexanoate having the highest odor activity value. The odor activity values of the esters were generally low.

Hexanal formation and pentanal formation were found to be early signs of quality deterioration of both a high lipid infant formula milk powder and a high protein infant formula milk powder with similar lactose and water content; these aldehydes were sensitive predictors for shelf-life at ambient conditions using short term storage at temperatures up to 55 °C. Higher temperature loads such as 70 °C were found to induce rapid lactose crystallisation entailing a rising water activity, higher levels of free radicals, rapid browning and formation of Strecker aldehydes from protein degradation, of which all were found to be unsuitable for shelf-life prediction. Advanced glycation end products were not detected during storage at 25 °C for up to 18 weeks and the rate of oxygen consumption for the reconstituted milk drink was not affected by storage of the infant formulas at 25 °C; neither can be recommended for shelf-life prediction.

Biotic interactions through volatile organic compounds (VOC) are frequent in nature. This investigation aimed to study the role of ITALIC! BacillusVOC for the beneficial effects on plants observed as improved growth and pathogen control. Four ITALIC! Bacillus amyloliquefacienssubsp. ITALIC! plantarumstrains were screened for VOC effects on ITALIC! Arabidopsis thalianaCol-0 seedlings and ITALIC! Brassicafungal phytopathogens. VOC from all four ITALIC! Bacillusstrains could promote growth of ITALIC! Arabidopsisplants resulting in increased shoot biomass but the effects were dependent on the growth medium. Dose response studies with UCMB5113 on MS agar with or without root exudates showed significant plant growth promotion even at low levels of bacteria. ITALIC! BacillusVOC antagonized growth of several fungal pathogens ITALIC! in vitro However, the plant growth promotion efficacy and fungal inhibition potency varied among the ITALIC! Bacillusstrains. VOC inhibition of several phytopathogens indicated efficient microbial antagonism supporting high rhizosphere competence of the ITALIC! Bacillusstrains. GC-MS analysis identified several VOC structures where the profiles differed depending on the growth medium. The ability of ITALIC! Bacillusstrains to produce both volatile and soluble compounds for plant growth promotion and disease biocontrol provides examples of rhizosphere microbes as an important ecosystem service with high potential to support sustainable crop production.

The aroma composition, the microbial composition and the sensory profile were measured in sliced saveloy samples packed in modified atmosphere (MA). The main objective was to identify aroma compounds with potential as chemical markers to identify the sensory changes of saveloy. The 60 aroma compounds isolated from the saveloy samples by dynamic headspace extraction and measured by Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) were used to model the sensory attributes sour&old odour and meaty odour using partial least squares regression (PLS). 2- and 3-methylbutanal, 2- and 3-methylbutanol, acetoin and diacetyl were found to have the highest impact on both sour&old odour and meaty odour of the samples. The results show that these four aroma compounds have high potential as chemical markers for the sensory shelf-life of sliced and MA-packed saveloy.

It has been suggested that mother’s milk has a more diverse flavor composition than infant formula milk as it reflects the maternal diet. This study aimed to identify volatile compounds in mother’s milk and infant formula milks to obtain more knowledge about these sources of early sensory exposure in infant feeding. Mother’s milk collected by ten lactating women, three times on three independent test days (n = 90), and 11 different formula milks were examined. Formulas included seven milk-based liquid formulas and four powder formulas (one milk-based and three hypoallergenic). Both mother’s milk and infant formulas were rich in lipid-derived volatile compounds including alcohols and carbonyl compounds. Formulas differed from mother’s milk as they contained more volatiles related to thermal treatment such as methional, 2-furfural, and sulfides. By comparison, mother’s milk revealed a higher variety of terpenes probably originating from the maternal diet. The number of identified volatiles in mother’s milk varied both within samples obtained from the same woman and significantly between women. The latter one suggests large variety in breast-fed infants’ exposure to volatiles. Qualitative differences existed for infant formulas. Powder forms revealed a greater number of compounds, predominantly secondary lipid oxidation products, and larger batch variations than liquid products. Extensively hydrolyzed formulas were significantly richer in volatile compounds associated with heat treatment of milk. These findings suggest that breast-fed infants are exposed to variations in volatile compounds in mother’s milk, while formula-fed infants are exposed to less diverse flavors when fed infant formula from the same brand.

Colletotrichum acutatum is a major fungal pathogen of fruit crops, which causes severe yield losses in strawberry production. A potential key factor in plant–pathogen interactions is fungal sesquiterpenoids which have mycotoxic and phytotoxic activities. The first committed step in sesquiterpenoid biosynthesis is performed by sesquiterpene synthases (TPS). Only a few TPSs have been functionally characterized from filamentous fungi and none from the genus Colletotrichum. Despite being an important fungal pathogen to agriculture, it is poorly understood at the molecular and chemical levels. The terpenoid biochemistry in Coll. acutatum strain SA 0-1 was studied and one Coll. acutatum TPS (CaTPS) was successfully cloned and characterized in yeast. CaTPS catalyses the biosynthesis of multiple sesquiterpenoids. The two major products are β-caryophyllene and an unidentified sesquiterpenoid along with α-humulene as one of the minor sesquiterpenoid products. These products were also secreted by the fungus in strawberry fruit medium along with several other sesquiterpenoids indicating other TPSs are active during in vitro growth. β-Caryophyllene and α-humulene are known cytotoxic products important for ecological interactions and are produced by SA 0-1. Interestingly, a gene expression analysis using quantitative real-time PCR revealed a significant increase in expression of CaTPS during strawberry fruit infection, thus indicating that it could be involved in fruit infection. This is, we believe, the first characterization of TPS in Colletotrichum spp. and terpenoid profiles of Coll. acutatum, which could facilitate studies on the role of terpenoids in the ecology of Coll. acutatum.

Solaris is a new disease tolerant cultivar increasingly cultivated in cool climate regions. In order to explore the winemaking processes' potential to make different styles of Solaris wines, the effects of different pre-fermentation treatments (direct press after crushing, whole cluster press, cold maceration, and skin fermentation) on the volatile profile, chemical, and sensory properties of Solaris wines were investigated. Cold maceration treatment for 24 h and fermentation on skin led to wines with lower acidity and higher glycerol and total polyphenol indexes. Sensory analysis showed that cold maceration enhanced "apricot" and "apple" flavor while skin fermentation gave rise to increased "rose" and "elderflower" flavor. The PLS regression model revealed that fruity flavor of cold macerated wines was related to a combination of esters while β-damascenone and linalool were correlated to the "rose" and "elderflower" flavor. This study provides information about pre-fermentation techniques that allowed the possibility of obtaining wines with different styles.

A study was performed in order to evaluate the impact of a poly-lactic acid (PLA) package relative to a polyester packaging material on quality of semi-hard cheese during light exposure and storage in the dark and when applying oxygen scavengers to the cheese packages. Migration of volatile compounds from PLA into the cheese was minute and well below any critical levels. Development of secondary lipid oxidation products and loss of riboflavin primarily took place when both oxygen and light were present. As more oxygen was present in the PLA packages than in the reference packages due to a higher oxygen transmission rate of PLA, a higher degree of lipid oxidation was noted in cheeses packaged in PLA. The degree of lipid oxidation was reduced when applying oxygen scavengers but to a lesser extent than when the products were stored in the dark. Riboflavin was degraded to the same extent in the PLA and the reference-packaged cheeses. The results indicate that dark storage/use of non-transparent materials and reduction of the water vapour transmission rate are recommended when using the present PLA for packaging of semi-hard cheeses in order to protect the products against both lipid oxidation and moisture loss.

Sliced Samso cheese, stored up to 3 weeks, exposed to light (1500 lx), packaged in 0% CO 2 (100% N 2 ), 20% CO 2 (80% N 2 ), or 100% CO 2 showed a significant decrease in yellowness ( b* ) and an increase in redness ( a* ). Cheese packaged in atmospheres containing 100% CO 2 and exposed to light was significantly darker ( L* ) than cheese exposed to 0% CO 2 , and the 100% CO 2 resulted in a drying-out of the cheeses. Descriptive sensory analysis revealed that light, gas composition, and storage time significantly affected taste and odour attributes of the semi-hard Samso cheese. Assessors characterised dark-stored cheeses packed in 20% CO 2 or 0% CO 2 as the most buttermilk-like. Cheeses packed in 100% CO 2 and exposed to light were described as rancid and as having a dry/crumbly texture. Dynamic headspace gas chromatography–mass spectrometry was used to identify volatile compounds. Significant light exposure effects during storage were noted for the following oxidation products: 1-Pentanol, 1-octanol, 2-ethyl-1-butanol, 2-butanol, 2-heptanol, 2-pentanol, 2-nonanol, benzaldehyde, 2-butanone, 2-nonanone, dimethyl trisulfide, and tetrahydrofuran. The gas composition had no impact on the formation of volatiles.

During storage for up to 52 weeks, under mildly accelerated conditions (22 °C, atmospheric air), potato flakes (1% lipid, dried to aw=0.4) were found to undergo oxidative changes as indicated by a slight decrease in headspace oxygen. The headspace concentration of hydrocarbons (ethane and pentane) steadily increased during storage, and the increase was reduced with added antioxidants. For a product without added antioxidants, three short-chain aldehydes increased slightly, but other secondary oxidation products did not change significantly (including thiobarbituric acid reactive substances). Long chain aldehydes (identified by GC–MS) were abundant in fresh products, but decreased during storage. The level of free radicals, as a marker of early events in oxidation and measured directly by electron spin resonance spectroscopy (ESR), increased significantly during the first 2 weeks of storage, followed by a marked decrease for the period of 2–22 weeks of storage to reach a steady state level. Throughout the period of storage, ESR spectrometry was able to rank products protected by natural antioxidant extracts according to increasing level of free radicals: Unprotected>Coffee>Green tea, Grape skin>Rosemary. Hydrocarbons evolved according to a similar pattern and it can be concluded that ESR spectrometry provides a method for detecting early stages of oxidation in this type of low fat dried products.

Boiled potato off-flavour is a cardboard-like note, that develops within hours when boiled potatoes are stored. Using a panel of four professional judges, it was verified that a clearly detectable off-flavour develops during the storage of boiled potatoes. Two different isolation methods (direct extraction and vacuum distillation/extraction) in combination with GC-MS and GC-sniffing were applied to the same freshly boiled and stored boiled potatoes. Eight compounds, (pentanal, hexanal, nonanal, (E)-2-octenal, 2,4-heptadienal, (E)-2-nonena, (E,E)-2,4-nonedienal and 2,4-decadienal) were appointed as potential contributors to the off-flavour, since these compounds could be detected during GC-sniffing, and increased in concentration during storage. The eight compounds, that most probably appear as a result of lipoxygenase initiated oxidation of linoleic and linolenic acid during the boiling process, were quantified in freshly boiled and stored boiled potatoes.

The aroma of freshly made and stored reconstituted orange juice was analyzed by GC– MS and GC–FID. The importance of the individual compounds was evaluated by calculation of aroma values. For comparison, the same samples were evaluated by a GC-sniffing technique called GC Odour Profiling, using a panel of five assessors. Both methods showed that there were significant differences between freshly made and stored juice, but the two methods did not always show the same compounds/odours to be important. On the other hand, many similarities were seen, as ethyl butanoate, β -pinene, limonene, octanal and linalool were shown to be important by both methods. In conclusion, both methods proved to be useful for identifying important aroma compounds in orange juice and for discrimination between fresh and stored juice.

The changes in the VOC composition of industrially produced saveloy were measured with Proton-Transfer-Reaction Mass-Spectrometry (PTR-MS) and HeadSpace Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS-GC–MS) during a six weeks storage period. A decrease in the volatile organic compounds contributing to the fresh aroma of saveloy was the main change observed with both PTR-MS and HS-GC–MS. Samples of four other types of cooked and sliced meat product were measured with PTR-MS in the middle and at the end of the four week shelf-life period. These measurements showed an increase in m/z 69, 71, 87 and 89 for the pork loin and in m/z 61 for the herbal saveloy samples. These ions were assigned to the microbial spoilage markers: acetic acid, 2- and 3-methylbutanol, 2- and 3-methylbutanal, diacetyl and acetoin. Overall, this study shows that PTR-MS has potential for quality control of cooked and sliced meat products.

Globally, aquaculture systems with water recirculation experience increasing problems with microbial taste and odor compounds (TOCs) such as geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB). This study investigated the content of geosmin and MIB in water and the flesh of 200 rainbow trouts from eight recirculated aquaculture systems in Denmark. TOC content in the fish flesh was measured by a dynamic headspace extraction method and was evaluated by a sensory panel. The results showed significant correlations between TOC content in water and fish and between chemical analysis and sensory perception. When geosmin exceeded 20 ng/L in the water, 96% of the fish had an intense muddy flavor, but below 10 ng geosmin/L, 18% of the fish (only 3% in special depuration ponds) had an intense muddy flavor. The results indicate that TOC levels

Export of cocoa beans is of great economic importance in Ghana and several other tropical countries. Raw cocoa has an astringent, unpleasant taste, and flavor, and has to be fermented, dried, and roasted to obtain the characteristic cocoa flavor and taste. In an attempt to obtain a deeper understanding of the changes in the cocoa beans during fermentation and investigate the possibility of future development of objective methods for assessing the degree of fermentation, a novel combination of methods including cut test, colorimetry, fluorescence spectroscopy, NIR spectroscopy, and GC-MS evaluated by chemometric methods was used to examine cocoa beans sampled at different durations of fermentation and samples representing fully fermented and dried beans from all cocoa growing regions of Ghana. Using colorimetry it was found that samples moved towards higher a* and b* values as fermentation progressed. Furthermore, the degree of fermentation could, in general, be well described by the spectroscopic methods used. In addition, it was possible to link analysis of volatile compounds with predictions of fermentation time. Fermented and dried cocoa beans from the Volta and the Western regions clustered separately in the score plots based on colorimetric, fluorescence, NIR, and GC-MS indicating regional differences in the composition of Ghanaian cocoa beans. The study demonstrates the potential of colorimetry and spectroscopic methods as valuable tools for determining the fermentation degree of cocoa beans. Using GC-MS it was possible to demonstrate the formation of several important aroma compounds such 2-phenylethyl acetate, propionic acid, and acetoin and the breakdown of others like diacetyl during fermentation. Practical Application: The present study demonstrates the potential of using colorimetry and spectroscopic methods as objective methods for determining cocoa bean quality along the processing chain. Development of objective methods for determining cocoa bean quality will be of great importance for quality insurance within the fields of cocoa processing and raw material control in chocolate producing companies.

This study investigates the release of selected strawberry flavor compounds from aqueous solutions of two barley and oat beta-glucan products at concentrations of 5, 10, and 15% (w/w). The flavor release of 12 esters and 3 alcohols was measured by dynamic headspace GC-MS. For each compound the ratio of the flavor release from the beta-glucan solution to the release from aqueous solution, A(rel), was recorded. In general, esters were retained in the beta-glucan matrices in a mass-dependent manner where heavier molecules were retained more. A(rel) for alcohols was found to be significantly larger than for the esters. Whereas A(rel) values for esters were always below unity, this parameter was above unity for alcohols in some preparations of beta-glucan. This implies that relative to esters, alcohols were rejected from some matrices. An increase in the concentration of the beta-glucan products was associated with an increased retention of alcohols and esters. For solutions of oat and barley beta-glucan products at the same concentration, the oat product retained the flavor compounds more strongly. This difference was more pronounced at low concentrations of the beta-glucan products. To investigate the potential of a multivariate approach for the analysis of the flavor release from beta-glucan products, partial least-squares regression was employed on a large selection of calculated molecular descriptors, yielding simple QSPR models capable of explaining the variation in A(rel). The robustness of the QSPR models was verified by cross-validation and permutation tests. The results indicate that the multivariate modeling approach might provide a useful tool for the investigation of flavor release systems similar to those studied here.

Degradation of the potential photosensitizers, riboflavin, chlorophyll, and porphyrin, in Danbo cheese by monochromatic light of wavelength 366, 436, or 546 nm was studied. Three cheeses were investigated, two conventional (16% fat and 25% fat) and one "organic" (25% fat). The effect of illumination was measured by fluorescence spectroscopy and analyzed using multiway and multivariate data analysis. Riboflavin was found to degrade only by 436 nm light, whereas chlorophylls and porphyrins also were influenced by 436 and 546 nm light. The organic cheese had the largest chlorophyll content both before and after similar light exposure, and no change in chlorophyll of this cheese was observed for any of the illumination wavelengths. Upon light exposure of the cheeses, volatile compounds were formed, as analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The relative concentrations of methyl butanoate, 1-pentanol, benzaldehyde, 2-butanone, 2-heptanone, and butyl acetate were found to weakly correlate with the surface fluorescence intensity. 1-Pentanol and the ketones are secondary lipid oxidation products, consistent with a chemical coupling between photosensitizer degradation and formation of volatile lipid oxidation products.

The relations between the sensory quality of 24 different carrot genotypes and content of dry matter, non-volatile and volatile compounds were studied using a multi-block approach called LS-parPLS. The prediction of five sensory attributes; bitterness, sweetness, terpene flavour, green flavour and carrot flavour, gave prediction errors (RMSECV) between 0.98 and 1.36 and correlation coefficients ( r ) between 0.60 and 0.81. The explained Y-variances were between 15.1% and 66.0%. The highest prediction error was observed for the attribute carrot flavour whereas green flavour gave the best prediction. The attributes green flavour, bitterness and terpene flavour showed fairly good predictions ( r /RMSECV/% exp- Y = 0.81/0.98/66.0, 0.79/1.23/62.3 and 0.71/1.04/50.2) whereas sweetness gave an unexpected poor prediction ( r/ RMSECV/% exp- Y = 0.67/1.36/44.6). Non-volatile compounds found to be important predictors were chlorogenic acid (5-CQA), sucrose, 6-methoxymellein (6-MM), falcarindiol (FaDOH), and falcarinol (FaOH). The volatile compounds found to be important predictors are considered as key flavour compounds of raw carrots: terpinolene, β-pinene, sabinene, γ-terpinene, α-pinene, β-bisabolene, caryophyllene and cuparene. In general, the overall results show that the sensory quality variation in the material regarding bitterness, green flavour and terpene flavour are explained by relatively few parameters. Despite that the results revealed some reliable relationships between the sensory attributes, aroma and chemical analysis, a large variance (about 40%) in the sensory block of variables remained unexplained and still needs further investigation for an in-depth understanding of sensory quality. LS-ParPLSc is shown to be feasible for handling several types of data blocks in one regression model.

This study deals with eating quality of pre-peeled potatoes. The effect of raw material quality (cultivar, duration of wound healing and storage) on chemical composition of raw potatoes, and sensory quality and aroma composition of cooked pre-peeled potatoes were determined. Potatoes were knife peeled, vacuum-packed, stored at 4 °C, and evaluated after 6 days of shelf-life. Significant differences in chemical composition, sensory quality and aroma composition were found among the 6 cultivars. Storage (0, 1 1 2 and 6 months) also affected the sensory quality and the aroma composition. For surface hardening an effect of wound healing time (2 or 4 weeks at 14 °C) was observed, since 4 weeks resulted in lower intensity in surface hardening. During long-term storage the intensity in surface hardening decreased. The aroma compounds linalool, methional, nonanal and decanal were correlated to potato flavour and rancidness, whereas off-flavour/off-taste seemed to be correlated to nonvolatile components. Enzymatic browning of potatoes was positively correlated with PPO activity, tyrosin and chlorogenic acid a well as aspartic and glutamic acid, but negatively correlated to caffeic acid. The study showed that the quality of pre-peeled potatoes is very sensitive to raw material quality, and the time of year being processed.

Development of potato off-flavor (POF) was examined in precooked vacuum-packed potatoes by GC and sensory analyses. The experiments comprised four varieties grown at two locations. Aroma compounds shown to be potential contributors to POF were determined quantitatively, and their relative importance was interpreted by aroma values based on odor detection threshold values determined in water. There were statistically significant differences in the content of POF compounds between the growing locations and among some of the varieties. The results from the sensory analyses concurred roughly with the GC analyses. (E,E)-2,4-Nonadienal and (E, E)-2,4-decadienal were shown to be the most potent of the POF compounds examined, in addition with hexanal, (E)-2-octenal, and (E)-2-nonenal. Lowering the development of POF in precooked vacuum-packed potatoes should be possible by optimizing the environmental conditions and breeding for suitable varieties.

In this study the effect of sous vide processing, steaming and traditional boiling of broccoli florets on retention of ascorbic acid, vitamin B6 and folacin was investigated. Freshly prepared samples were also sensorily evaluated. In all heat treatments ascorbic acid was found to have the highest retention, and was therefore judged not to be suitable as an indicator for vitamin retention in general. When the three types of heat treatment were compared, boiling showed lowest retention of all the vitamins examined (45–64% in 5 min), whereas sous-vide processing gave the highest retentions (97–100% in 5 min). Retentions during steaming were a little lower (83–100% in 5 min). Sensory evaluation showed that sous-vide cooked and steamed broccoli florets generally had higher acceptability than boiled.