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In memory of the 85th birthday of Yakov S. Lebedev (Moscow), who died in 1996, we start this Review on soft-glass matrix effects in donor–acceptor complexes with an appreciation of his pioneering work on high-field EPR spectroscopy on tribochemically generated donor–acceptor complexes. The mechanochemical activation of polycrystalline mixtures of porphyrins (and other donors) and quinone acceptors was found to produce large concentrations of triplet donor molecules and donor–acceptor radical pairs with unusual stability. The Review is continued with reporting on W-band high-field EPR and fast-laser studies on disaccharide matrix effects on structure and dynamics of donor–acceptor protein complexes related to photosynthesis, including the non-oxygenic bacterial reaction center (RC) and the oxygenic RCs Photosystem I (PS I) and Photosystem II (PS II, preliminary results). Some organisms can survive complete dehydration and high temperatures by adopting an anhydrobiotic state in which the intracellular medium contains large amounts of disaccharides, in particular trehalose and sucrose. Trehalose is most effective in protecting biostructures, both in vivo and in vitro. To clarify the molecular mechanisms of disaccharide bioprotection, structure and dynamics of sucrose and trehalose matrices at different controlled hydration levels were probed by perdeuterated nitroxide spin labels and native cofactor intermediates in their charge-separated states. Trehalose forms a homogeneous amorphous phase in which the hosted molecules are uniformly distributed. Notably, their rotational mobility at room temperature is dramatically impaired by thetrehalose H-bonding network confinement to an extent that in normal protein–matrix systems is only observed at low temperatures around 150K. From the experimental results, formation of an extended H-bonding network of trehalose with protein molecules is inferred, involving both bulk and local water molecules. The H-bond network extends homogeneously over the whole matrix integrating and immobilizing the hosted protein. Taken together, these observations suggest that in photosystems, such as bacterial RCs and PS I complexes, of different size and complexity regarding subunit composition and oligomeric organization, the molecular configuration of the cofactors involved in the primary processes of charge separation is not significantly distorted by incorporation into trehalose glass, even under extensive dehydration. By means of pulsed W-band high-field multiresonance EPR spectroscopies, such as ELDOR-detected NMR and ENDOR, in conjunction with using isotope labeled water (D2O and H217O), the biologically important issue of sensing and quantification of local water in proteins is addressed. The bacterial RC embedded into the trehalose glass matrix is used as model system. The two native radical cofactor ions of the primary electron donor and acceptor as well as an artificial nitroxide spin label site-specifically attached to the protein surface are studied in the experiments. The three paramagnetic reporter groups probe distinctly different local environments. They sense water molecules via their magnetic hyperfine and quadrupole interactions with either deuterons or 17O nuclei. It is shown that by using oxygen-17 labeled water, quantitative conclusions can be drawn differentiating between local and bulk water. It is concluded that dry trehalose operates as anhydrobiotic protein stabilizer by means of selective changes in the first solvation shell of the protein upon trehalose–matrix dehydration with subsequent changes in the hydrogen-bonding network. Such changes usually have an impact on the global function of a biological system. Finally, preliminary results of optical and W-band EPR experiments on the extremolytes ectoine and its derivative hydroxyectoine are reported; these compounds appear to share several stress-protecting properties with trehalose in terms of stabilizing protein matrices. For instance, they display remarkable stabilizing capabilities towards sensitive proteins and enzymes with respect to freeze-thawing, heat-treatment, and freeze-drying procedures. Moreover, hydroxyectoine is a good glass-forming compound and exhibits a remarkable bioprotective effect against desiccation and heat denaturation of functional protein complexes.

ESEEM measurements were performed at two temperatures on Photosystem I (PS I) complexes depleted of the extrinsic PsaC subunit harboring iron–sulfur 4Fe–4S clusters FA/FB (abbreviated FX-core complexes) embedded in trehalose glassy matrix. The ESEEM modulation frequencies obtained for the FX-core complexes in trehalose matrix were similar at 150 K and 290 K. They correspond to a distance ~ 25 A between the oxidized primary donor P700·+ and reduced phylloquinone acceptor A1·−. This distance corresponds to the preferential charge separation pathway between P700·+ and A1B·− in the B-branch of the PS I redox cofactors, while the distance estimated previously for the intact PS I complexes (containing the extrinsic PsaC subunit) embedded in dry trehalose matrix was ~ 26 A, which is typical for the formation of P700·+A1A·− charge-separated radical pairs in the symmetrical A-branch (Sukhanov et al. in Appl Magn Reson 49:1011, 2018). The redirection of electron transfer preferentially from the A to the B-branch of redox cofactors observed in FX-core complexes embedded in dry trehalose matrix can be rationalized by the alteration of the protein domain rigidity/flexibility around phylloquinone molecules in the A1A and A1B sites, which affects the thermodynamics of electron transfer between P700 and A1 in the symmetrical branches of cofactors. This finding of similar modulation frequencies measured for FX-core complexes in trehalose matrix at 150 K and 290 K is opposite to our previously obtained results for intact PS I, where the value of ESEEM modulation frequency markedly decreased upon heating the sample from cryogenic to room temperature (Sukhanov et al. in Appl Magn Reson 49: 1011, 2018). Our comparison of FX-core complexes with intact PS I complexes suggests that 4Fe-4S clusters accelerate spin–lattice relaxation of the unpaired electron spins on the phylloquinone in the A1-site. The result serves as additional argument in favor of the molecular model of the cryoprotective effect of trehalose matrix on the functioning of PS I by way of rigidity changes of the hydrogen-bonding network of the protein with the matrix that is based on the Le Chatelier–Braun principle. According to this thermodynamic principle, changes in both rigidity and flexibility are compensated to establish new thermodynamic equilibria with restored global balance of rigidity and flexibility that is typical within functioning protein complexes.

Disaccharide glasses are increasingly used to immobilize proteins at room temperature for structural/functional studies and long-term preservation. To unravel the molecular basis of protein immobilization, we studied the effect of sugar/protein concentration ratios in trehalose or sucrose matrixes, in which the bacterial photosynthetic reaction center (RC) was embedded as a model protein. The structural, dynamical, and H-bonding characteristics of the sugar-protein systems were probed by high-field W-band EPR of a matrix-dissolved nitroxide radical. We discovered that RC immobilization and thermal stabilization, being independent of the protein concentration in trehalose, occur in sucrose only at sufficiently low sugar/protein ratios. EPR reveals that only under such conditions does sucrose form a microscopically homogeneous matrix that immobilizes, via H-bonds, the nitroxide probe. We conclude that the protein immobilization capability depends critically on the propensity of the glass-forming sugar to create intermolecular H-bond networks, thus establishing long-range, homogeneous connectivity within the matrix.

The structural and dynamical interaction of proteins with their microenvironment in disordered matrices plays a decisive role for their function; EPR spectroscopy is a powerful tool for shading light onto the molecular mechanisms of this protein–matrix interplay. To clarify the molecular mechanisms of disaccharide bioprotection, we studied the structure and dynamics of spin-labeled systems and photosynthetic reaction centers (RCs) in sucrose and trehalose matrices at different hydration levels by means of cw and pulse high-field 95 GHz (W-band) EPR as well as by FTIR. In this minireview, we summarize and discuss EPR and FTIR experiments showing that the anhydrobiotic state of the RC–trehalose system (1) is not the result of matrix-induced changes of the local structure of the charge-separated radical-pair cofactors, $${\text{P}}_{865}^{ \cdot + }$$ and $${\text{Q}}_{\text{A}}^{ \cdot - }$$ , and (2) is not the result of changes of local dynamics and local hydrogen bonding of QA in its binding pocket. Rather, the extreme impairment of RC dynamics caused by incorporation into the dehydrated trehalose matrix, which also protects it against thermal denaturation, originates in the high rigidity, already at room temperature, of the dry trehalose glass matrix coating the RC protein surface. This surface hydrogen-bonding scaffold shifts the correlation time of thermal conformational fluctuations into the non-biological time domain. Another intriguing aspect of disaccharide bioprotection is the superior efficiency of trehalose versus sucrose matrices in stabilizing the anhydrobiotic state of proteins. To clarify the molecular basis of this specificity, glassy trehalose–water and sucrose–water binary systems, incorporating a nitroxide radical as spin probe, have been studied by high-field W-band EPR spectroscopy at different water contents. Analysis of the EPR spectra revealed a different structural and dynamical organization in the sucrose and trehalose matrix, only the trehalose being homogeneous in terms of residual water and nitroxide distribution.

In a recent paper (Bardelang et al. in J Org Chem 71:7657–7667, 2006), the deep inclusion of the TIPNO (1-phenyl-2-methylpropyl-1,1-dimethylethyl-2-nitroxide) free radical attached to a permethylated β-cyclodextrin (TRIMEB) into its cavity was questioned. In the present paper it is shown that the results of X-band and W-band electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies of the TIPNO–TRIMEB in the presence of competitors of complexation (1-adamantanol, methyl orange and 1-adamantylamine) are consistent with a situation where the nitroxide is capping the small cavity entrance. The inclusion of the incoming guest was proven by 1H NMR, whereas no changes in EPR spectra were noticed whatever the competitors’ concentrations. These observations are rationalized in terms of an equilibrium between a nitroxide-capped cyclodextrin (weak complex) and a non-self included form, both species involving competitors’ inclusion without significant EPR spectral changes. These results not only confirm our preliminary findings, but also point out to the peculiar role of the cyclodextrin methoxy crown of the primary rim stabilizing the appended guest by means of weak interactions.

The flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor of Aspergillus niger glucose oxidase (GO) in its anionic (FAD*-) and neutral (FADH*) radical form was investigated by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) at high microwave frequencies (93.9 and 360 GHz) and correspondingly high magnetic fields and by pulsed electron-nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopy at 9.7 GHz. Because of the high spectral resolution of the frozen-solution continuous-wave EPR spectrum recorded at 360 GHz, the anisotropy of the g-tensor of FAD*- could be fully resolved. By least-squares fittings of spectral simulations to experimental data, the principal values of g have been established with high precision: gX=2.00429(3), gY=2.00389(3), gZ=2.00216(3) (X, Y, and Z are the principal axes of g) yielding giso=2.00345(3). The gY-component of FAD*- from GO is moderately shifted upon deprotonation of FADH*, rendering the g-tensor of FAD*- slightly more axially symmetric as compared to that of FADH*. In contrast, significantly altered proton hyperfine couplings were observed by ENDOR upon transforming the neutral FADH* radical into the anionic FAD*- radical by pH titration of GO. That the g-principal values of both protonation forms remain largely identical demonstrates the robustness of g against local changes in the electron-spin density distribution of flavins. Thus, in flavins, the g-tensor reflects more global changes in the electronic structure and, therefore, appears to be ideally suited to identify chemically different flavin radicals.

The effect of dehydration on the kinetics of forward electron transfer (ET) has been studied in cyanobacterial photosystem I (PS I) complexes in a trehalose glassy matrix by time-resolved optical and EPR spectroscopies in the 100 fs to 1 ms time domain. The kinetics of the flash-induced absorption changes in the subnanosecond time domain due to primary and secondary charge separation steps were monitored by pump–probe laser spectroscopy with 20-fs low-energy pump pulses centered at 720 nm. The back-reaction kinetics of P700 were measured by high-field time-resolved EPR spectroscopy and the forward kinetics of A 1A • − / A 1 B • − → F X ${\rm{A}}_{{\rm{1A}}}^{ \bullet - }/{\rm{A}}_{1{\rm{B}}}^{ \bullet - } \to {{\rm{F}}_{\rm{X}}}$ by time-resolved optical spectroscopy at 480 nm. The kinetics of the primary ET reactions to form the primary P 700 • + A 0 • − ${\rm{P}}_{700}^{ \bullet + }{\rm{A}}_0^{ \bullet - }$ and the secondary P 700 • + A 1 • − ${\rm{P}}_{700}^{ \bullet + }{\rm{A}}_1^{ \bullet - }$ ion radical pairs were not affected by dehydration in the trehalose matrix, while the yield of the P 700 • + A 1 • − ${\rm{P}}_{700}^{ \bullet + }{\rm{A}}_1^{ \bullet - }$ was decreased by ~20%. Forward ET from the phylloquinone molecules in the A 1 A • − ${\rm{A}}_{1{\rm{A}}}^{ \bullet - }$ and A 1 B • − ${\rm{A}}_{1{\rm{B}}}^{ \bullet - }$ sites to the iron–sulfur cluster FX slowed from ~220 ns and ~20 ns in solution to ~13 μs and ~80 ns, respectively. However, as shown by EPR spectroscopy, the ~15 μs kinetic phase also contains a small contribution from the recombination between A 1 B • − ${\rm{A}}_{1{\rm{B}}}^{ \bullet - }$ and P 700 • + . ${\rm{P}}_{700}^{ \bullet + }.$ These data reveal that the initial ET reactions from P700 to secondary phylloquinone acceptors in the A- and B-branches of cofactors (A1A and A1B) remain unaffected whereas ET beyond A1A and A1B is slowed or prevented by constrained protein dynamics due to the dry trehalose glass matrix.

In this work, by using the respective advantages of W- and X-band electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy techniques to investigate electron transport processes, we have studied the light-induced redox transients of the primary electron donor P700 and the secondary acceptor A1 in photosystem (PS) I complexes of intact cyanobacterial cellsSynechocystis sp. PCC 6803. We found that the kinetic behavior of the cation radical P700·+ generated by illumination with continuous light, and the EPR intensity of the radical pair P700·+A1·− generated upon laser pulse illumination strongly depend on the illumination prehistory (either the sample was frozen in the dark or during illumination). Both these processes were sensitive to the presence of electron transport inhibitors which block electron flow between the two photosystems. In line with our X-band EPR data on the kinetics of light-induced redox transients of P700, our high-field W-band EPR study of the radical-pair state P700·+A1·− shows that photosynthetic electron flow through the PS I reaction center is controlled both on the donor and on the acceptor side of PS I.

Matrix effects on long-range electron transfer were studied in cyanobacterial Photosystem I (PS I) complexes, embedded into trehalose glasses at different hydration levels. W-band EPR studies demonstrated, via nitroxide spin probes, structural homogeneity of the dry PS I-trehalose matrix and no alteration of cofactors' distance and relative orientation under temperature and matrix variation. In dry trehalose glasses at room temperature (RT), PS I was stable for months. Flash-induced charge recombination kinetics were examined by high-field time-resolved EPR and optical spectroscopies. The kinetics in hydrated PS I-trehalose glasses mostly reflected the reduction of the photooxidized primary donor P700•+ by the reduced terminal iron-sulfur clusters. Upon dehydration, the P700•+ decay accelerated and became more distributed. Continuous distributions of lifetimes τ were extracted from the kinetics by two numerical approaches: a maximum entropy method (MemExp program) and a constrained regularization method (CONTIN program). Both analyses revealed that upon dehydration the contribution of the two slowest components (lifetimes τ ~ 300 ms and ~ 60 ms), attributed to P700•+[FA/FB] − recombination, decreased in parallel with the increase of the fastest component (τ ~ 150 μs), and of additional distributed phases with intermediate lifetimes. Dehydration at RT mimicked the effects of freezing water-glycerol PS I systems, suggesting an impairment of PS I protein dynamics in the dry trehalose glass. Similar effects were observed previously in bacterial reaction centers. The work presented for PS I provides new insights into the crucial issue of protein-matrix interactions for protein functionality as controlled by hydrogen-bond networks of the hydration shell.

The g-tensor of the neutral radical form of the flavin adenine dinucleotide cofactor FADH• of (6–4) photolyase from Xenopus laevis has been determined by very high-magnetic-field/high-microwave-frequency electron-paramagnetic resonance (EPR) performed at 360 GHz/12.8 T. Due to the high spectral resolution the anisotropy of the g-tensor could be fully resolved in the frozen-solution continuous-wave EPR spectrum. By least square fittings of spectral simulations to experimental data, the principal values of the g-tensor have been established: gX = 2.00433(5), gY = 2.00368(5), gZ = 2.00218(7). A comparison of very high-field EPR data and proton and deuteron electron-nuclear double resonance measurements yielded precise information concerning the orientation of the g-tensor with respect to the molecular frame. This data allowed a comparison to be made between the principal values of the g-tensors of the FADH• cofactors of photolyases involved in the repair of two different DNA lesions: the cyclobutane pyrim...

The frozen solution electron paramagnetic resonance spectrum of the primary donor cation P + in reaction centers of site-directed mutants of Rhodobacter ( Rb. ) sphaeroides has been obtained at a microwave frequency ν =360 GHz and a magnetic field B 0 =12.8 T. Due to the high Zeeman resolution of the powder pattern, all three principal components of the rhombic g -tensors at T =160 K could be determined with high accuracy. We compare spectra of the site-directed mutants, in which the axial ligand histidine M202 of the primary donor is replaced by glutamic acid (HE(M202)) or leucine (HL(M202)), with those of the strain R26, whose primary donor is similar to that of the wild type and only lacks the carotenoid. For HE(M202), this is the first determination of its g -tensor with the principal components g xx =2.00335(3), g yy =2.00236(2) and g zz =2.00191(2). While in R26 the primary donor is a bacteriochlorophyll a dimer, the HL(M202) and HE(M202) mutants have previously been shown to be bacteriochlorophyll:bacteriopheophytin heterodimers. Their g -tensor anisotropy Δ g = g xx − g zz shows significant variations in opposite directions when compared with R26, with an increased anisotropy for HE(M202) and a decreased one for HL(M202). Calculations employing Density Functional Theory suggest that the observed shifts originate in different torsional angles of the acetyl group attached to the spin-carrying bacteriochlorophyll half L of the dimer.

The photoexcited quartet (Q1) and doublet (D1) states of the complex of tetra-phenyl-porphine zinc (II) and a nitroxide radical have been studied in toluene solution by X-(9.4 GHz) and W-band (94 GHz) time-resolved electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. The spin-polarized signals of the Q1 and D1 states are observed and assigned by analysis of theg-values. Line broadening and spin polarization mechanisms in this system are discussed.

Primary photosynthesis is the biological electron transfer process by which green plants and certain bacteria convert the energy of sunlight into electrochemical energy. Light-induced charge separation is achieved by (bacterio) chlorophyll donor and quinone acceptor cofactors in the transmembrane reaction center protein complexes. Thereby transient radical ions are formed creating weakly coupled radical pairs. Time-resolved high-field EPR spectroscopy is ideally suited to study such short-lived species in their working states. It provides detailed information on the structure and dynamics of the cofactors in their binding sites and on hydrogen bond interaction with the protein. Thereby, our understanding of primary photosynthesis on the molecular level is improved.

Using W-band time-resolved EPR (TREPR) (95 GHz), the lowest excited doublet (D1) state was observed in solution for the first time together with the excited quartet (Q1) and doublet ground (D0) states in a complex of MgTPP (TPP; tetraphenylporphyrin) and an axial-ligating p-pyridylnitronylnitroxide radical (nit-p-py). The g value obtained for D1 was in good agreement with the calculated value. The spin polarization of D1 varied with time from an emission to an absorption as well as that of Q1 and D0. The result shows that the spin polarizations are produced by a radical−triplet pair mechanism with a ferromagnetic coupling (J > 0). The sign of the exchange coupling is consistent with that obtained in the X-band TREPR experiment (Fujisawa, J.; Ishii, K.; Ohba, Y.; Yamauchi, S.; Fuhs, M.; Mobius K. J. Phys. Chem. A 1997, 101, 5869).

Time-resolved electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) investigations, performed at microwave frequencies of 9.5 GHz (X band) and 95 GHz (W band), on porphyrin quinone quinone and porphyrin porphyrin quinone triads are presented. Time-resolved EPR at different microwave frequencies makes it possible to elucidate the electron transfer (ET) reactions after pulsed laser excitation and to determine their intermediates, the charge-separated radical pair (RP) states. After photoexcitation in the nematic and soft glass phase of a liquid crystal (LC), spin-polarized EPR spectra are observed for the RPs and for the triplet states of the porphyrins created by spin-selective intersystem crossing (ISC) from the excited porphyrin singlet state. The EPR polarization patterns of the RPs are discussed in terms of the favoured decay channels of the photoexcited singlet state of the porphyrin donor. The decay pathway can be singlet ET to the quinone(s) followed by singlet/triplet mixing to yield RPs with triplet character, or...

The “Contracted Porphyrins” corrole and the recently synthesized isocorrole (as octaethyl derivatives) represent novel porphyrinoid macrocycles of biochemical interest. The radical cations of the free-bases of both corrole and its isomer are studied by EPR, ENDOR, and TRIPLE resonance in liquid solution to measure isotropic hyperfine couplings including signs. They yield detailed information of the electronic structure of the radical cations. The experimental findings are compared with results of all-valence-electrons self-consistent field molecular orbital calculations (RHF-INDO/SP). The comparison shows that the free-bases of corrole and isocorrole undergo protonation when oxidized to cation radicals in CH2Cl2 solution. Excellent agreement of the measured and calculated spin density distributions is achieved for the protonated dication radicals, which exhibit the C2 symmetry observed for the hyperfine structure. The analysis of the hyperfine data discriminates against NH tautomerism as the sole source for an effective C2 symmetry of the macrocycle.

The electronic structure of the primary electron donor (D) of the photosynthetic bacteriumRhodobacter sphaeroides is investigated by ENDOR in the photoinduced triplet state of D. Hyperfine (hf) splittings of the triplet state measured on frozen solutions are given and compared to the results obtained earlier (Lendzian F., van Willigen H., Sastry S., Mobius K., Scheer H., Feick R.: Chem. Phys. Lett.118, 145 (1985). The hf splittings found are consistent with a model of an asymmetric spin density distribution over the two bacteriochlorophyll molecules which constitute D, suggesting a mirror image symmetry of HOMO and LUMO coefficients. The could be relevant for electron transfer, in particular unidirectionality in the reaction center (RC). The first triplet state ENDOR experiments on single crystals of RC’s are also reported.

The bacteriochlorophyll (BGhl)a cation radical is studied by cw-EPR and multinuclear ENDOR/TRIPLE resonance techniques in liquid solution yielding the hyperfine coupling constants (hfcs) for 12 protons, all 4 nitrogens and the central magnesium nucleus. The H hfcs are assigned to specific molecular positions by various experimental techniques including isotope substitution, H/D exchange experiments and comparison with bacteriochlorophyll derivatives. The determined temperature dependences of the H hfcs are measured and related to dynamical properties of the molecule in solution. The experimental hfcs compare well with those obtained from semiempirical molecular orbital calculations of the RHF-INDO/SP type. The importance of these results for BChl speciesin vivo, i.e., in the protein matrix, is discussed.

Fourier transform EPR spectroscopy was employed in studying the electron transfer (ET) reaction and the quenching mechanisms of the photoexcited triplet state of C60 as electron acceptor and N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylbenzidine (NTMB) as electron donor in benzonitrile solution. The ET reaction product, the cation radical NTMB*+, interacts with 3*C60, leading to photoinduced electron polarization of NTMB*+ via triplet-doublet mixing mechanism combined with triplet mechanism. The quenching of 3*C60 and the polarization behavior of NTMB*+ are discussed.

Some organisms can survive complete dehydration and high temperatures by adopting an anhydrobiotic state in which the intracellular medium contains large amounts of disaccharides, particularly trehalose and sucrose. Trehalose is most effective also in protecting isolated in vitro biostructures. In an attempt to clarify the molecular mechanisms of disaccharide bioprotection, we compared the structure and dynamics of sucrose and trehalose matrices at different hydration levels by means of high-field W-band EPR and FTIR spectroscopy. The hydration state of the samples was characterized by FTIR spectroscopy and the structural organization was probed by EPR using a nitroxide radical dissolved in the respective matrices. Analysis of the EPR spectra showed that the structure and dynamics of the dehydrated matrices as well as their evolution upon re-hydration differ substantially between trehalose and sucrose. The dehydrated trehalose matrix is homogeneous in terms of distribution of the residual water and spin-probe molecules. In contrast, dehydrated sucrose forms a heterogeneous matrix. It is comprised of sucrose polycrystalline clusters and several bulk water domains. The amorphous form was found only in 30% (volume) of the sucrose matrix. Re-hydration leads to a structural homogenization of the sucrose matrix, whilst in the trehalose matrix several domains develop differing in the local water/radical content and radical mobility. The molecular model of the matrices provides an explanation for the different protein–matrix dynamical coupling observed in dried ternary sucrose and trehalose matrices, and accounts for the superior efficacy of trehalose as a bioprotectant. Furthermore, for bacterial photosynthetic reaction centers it is shown that at low water content the protein–matrix coupling is modulated by the sugar/protein molar ratio in sucrose matrices only. This effect is suggested to be related to the preference for sucrose, rather than trehalose, as a bioprotective disaccharide in some anhydrobiotic organisms.

The distance and relative orientation of functional groups within protein domains and their changes during chemical reactions determine the efficiency of biological processes. In this work on electron transfer proteins, we report the results of orientation resolving dipolar high-field EPR spectroscopy on the charge-separated state P700•+ A1•– (P700, primary electron donor; A1, phylloquinone electron acceptor) in Photosystem I (PS I). Pulsed high-field EPR spectroscopy at W-band (95 GHz, 3.4 T) with extensions to PELDOR (pulsed electron–electron double resonance) and RIDME (relaxation-induced dipolar modulation enhancement) was utilized to obtain the parameters describing the three-dimensional structure of the laser-flash-induced transient radical pair P700•+ A1•– in a frozen solution of deuterated PS I from the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, which is performing oxygenic photosynthesis. The measured distances and relative orientations of the weakly coupled radical ions in the radical pair P700•+ A1•– are compared with previously reported geometries and with those of the precursor cofactors P700 and A1 known from X-ray crystallography. Cyclic electron transfer was found to proceed exclusively via the A-branch of the cofactor chain of PS I at cryogenic temperature. The position and orientation of the reduced phylloquinone coincide with those of the precursor, revealing that no substantial orientational changes of the phylloquinone molecule upon charge separation occur. Several distinct orientations of the P700•+ g-tensor axes with respect to the molecular frame of the primary donor were found experimentally, which we explain by several conformational substates of the P700•+ radical structure having slightly different electron spin density distributions.

Time-resolved EPR spectra are reported for photoexcited porphyrin—quinones with butylene and cis- or trans- cyclohexylene spacers between porphyrin donors and crown ether—quinone acceptors. In the nematic phases of liquid crystals, polarized triplet EPR spectra of the porphyrin moiety could be observed at early delay times (0.1–0.6 μs) after laser flash irradiation. At later delay times (1–2 μs) the triplet EPR spectra of the charge-separated radical pair state, created by intramolecular electron transfer from the porphyrin donor to the crown ether quinone acceptor, could be detected. The similarity of the zero-field splitting parameters D of the cyclohexylene- and butylene-linked compounds shows that the radical pair of the flexible butylene-linked compound is in a stretched conformation. However, longer laser irradiation of the species with the flexible bridge results in the formation of a novel triplet radical pair species with a shorter porphyrin—quinone separation indicating a photoinduced backfolding of the quinone over the porphyrin plane. Comparison of the cis- and trans-cyclohexylene-linked compounds reveals a distortion of the cyclohexylene spacer in the cis compound.

Recent improvements of a 3 mm high-field/high-frequency CW EPR/ENDOR spectrometer [O. Burghaus, M. Rohrer, T. Gotzinger, M. Plate, and K. Mobius, Meas. Sci. Technol.3, 765 (1992)] are presented, making it possible for ENDOR measurements to be performed with NMR radiofrequeney fields of more than 2.5 mT (rotating frame) over a frequency range of 40 MHz. Applications of this setup to plastosemiquinone anion radicals are described which serve as a model for the secondary electron acceptor in plant photosystem II. The orientation-selected high-field ENDOR spectra of the plastoquinone anion radicals, recorded at different EPR field positions, are analyzed with the aid of computer simulations. The determination of hyperfine interactions of the radical in a perdeuterated solvent is described. The experiments demonstrate the potential of high-field/high-frequency EPR/ENDOR in structure determination including anisotropic interactions with the environment.

Radicals generated photochemically from a covalently linked porphyrin-quinone donor-acceptor system dissolved in reversed micelles and isotropic solution have been studied by steady-state and time-resolved EPR spectroscopy. In these systems photoinducedintramolecular as well asintermolecular electron transfer processes occur which result in the formation of semiquinone radical anions and porphyrin radical cations. Disproportionation of the semiquinone leads to the formation of porphyrin-hydroquinone (and porphyrin-quinone). The porphyrin-hydroquinone is itself photoactive and reacts through the photoexcited triplet state of the porphyrin. Reduction of the porphyrin to the dihydro from — probablyvia hydrogen abstraction by the photoexcited porphyrin from the hydroquinone — appears to be the dominant reaction. Once formed the dihydrophyrin undergoes further similar photochemistry. Emissively polarized spectra are observed from these systems in steady-state EPR experiments. Timeresolved EPR indicates that this polarization is essentially due to the radical triplet pair mechanism.

In photosynthesis research the elucidation of the spatial and electronic structures of the electron donor and acceptor ion radicals is very important for an understanding of the light-induced electron transfer process. Recent 3 mm (W-band, 95 GHz) high-field EPR and ENDOR studies on the primary donor cation radicals P+. (bacteriochlorophyll dimer), the acceptor anion radicals Q+. (quinones), and the charge-separated radical pair (P+.Q−.) in photosynthetic bacteria and biomimetic model systems are presented. From single crystals of, for instance,Rb. sphaeroides R-26 reaction centers both the hyperfine tensors of various protons and theg-tensor of P865 +. have been determined and compared with calculated tensor values based on recent X-ray structure data. The results consistently reveal a breaking of the local C2 symmetry of the electronic structure at the primary donor side of the reaction center. This is of particular interest since it might be relevant for the vectorial electron transfer along the protein complex. Among the quinone radical anions studied are frozen solutions of the electron acceptors of bacterial and plant reaction centers (ubiquinone and plastoquinone, respectively). The increased electron Zeeman interaction in high-field EPR leads to almost completely resolvedg-tensor components even in disordered samples. Theg-tensors and component linewidths are sensitive probes for specific anisotropic interactions with the environment. In the case of the transient correlated coupled radical pair P865 +.-QA −. ofRb. sphaeroides (Fe replaced by Zn) the spin-polarized high-field EPR spectra allow an unambiguous determination of the relative orientation of theg-tensors of the donor and acceptor parts. Thereby high-precision structure information is obtained on the electron transfer pigments after light-induced charge separation.

A time-resolved Electron Nuclear Double Resonance (ENDOR) study has been made of the photo-excited triplet state of free-base tetraphenylporphyrin in a partially aligned sample with crystalline toluene as the host matrix. This has permitted measurement of the hyperfine tensor elements for each of the different groups of equivalent protons in the reference frame of the zero-field splitting tensor.

Cation radicals of the primary electron donor (D + ) in bacterial photosynthesis were investigated by high field, high frequency (95 GHz) EPR. Measurements on frozen solutions of D + , a dimeric π-cation radical, of various organisms ( Rps. viridis, Rb. sphaeroides, Chloroflexus aurantiacus and a heterodimer mutant) are reported, revealing differences in the principal values of the G -tensor. Elements of a theory relating the magnitudes of G principal values to the electronic structure are discussed.

Porphyrin quinones (P-Q's), covalently linked via different aliphatic bridges, have been synthesized and studied in their (porphyrin) cationic and (semiquinone) anionic radical states by EPR, ENDOR and TRIPLE resonance techniques. Time-resolved and steady-state photoexcitation experiments showed that intra- and intermolecular electron transfer (ET) processes occur in these systems, both in isotropic and reversed micellar solution. Analysis of the experimental data showed the occurrence of photochemical redox processes which result in the formation of hydroquinoid and chlorin type derivatives. Strong polarisation effects were observed for the doublet species - generated by intermolecular ET - under steady-state illumination. It is demonstrated that the polarisation pattern can be explained by the encounter of a triplet and a doublet species allowing the radical triplet pair mechanism to occur. Using a porphyrin linked to a redox active crown ether quinone, complexation of sodium cations in the crown gave rise to well resolved sodium ENDOR lines with an unusual high spin density at the alkali metal ion. Moreover, interesting photochemically induced conformational changes, such as folding and unfolding of donor and acceptor with respect to one another in the case of a flexible butylene bridge, could be detected.

Fourier transform EPR spectroscopy was employed in studying the electron transfer (ET) and the quenching mechanisms of the photoexcited triplet state of C[sub 60] (electron donor) in the presence of the electron acceptor tetracyanoethylene (TCNE) in a benzonitrile solution. The ET reaction product, which is the stable anion radical TCNE[sup [minus]], interacts with [sup 3]C[sub 60] (both detected by EPR in the liquid phase), leading to chemically induced dynamic electron polarization of TCNE[sup [minus]], via triplet-doublet mixing mechanism. 30 refs., 3 figs., 1 tab.

The mechanochemical activation of polycrystalline mixtures of porphyrins and quinones (as well as some other donors and quinones) was found to produce large concentrations of triplet radical pairs with unusual stability in the solid state matrix. High-field/high-frequency (2 mm band) EPR experiments allowed observation of low-temperature spin polarization and determination of the sign of the zero-field splitting parameters D. They appeared to be positive, in contrast to most in chemically or photochemically produced donor—acceptor radical pairs, for which the point dipole approximation (D

We report on time-resolved EPR experiments of the photo-induced electron transfer from zinc-tetraphenylporphyrin (ZnTPP) to duroquinone (DQ) in cationic CTAC and neutral Triton X-100 micelles. The spin-polarized EPR spectra and their time-dependence indicate pronounced differences between the two micellar systems: In the neutral micelles, the lifetime of the spin-correlated radical pair is longer than in the charged micelles. In the CTAC system an unusual temperature dependence of the polarization pattern is observed. This can be attributed to the effects of both the microviscosity of the micellar interior and the macroviscosity of the bulk solution on the spin dynamics of the reactants located inside the micelles.

The electron spin density distribution of the cation radical of the primary donor, D+, a bacteriochlorophyll a dimer was determined by ENDOR and TRIPLE resonance experiments performed on single crystals of reaction centers (RCs) of Rhodobacter sphaeroides R-26. Nine isotropic proton hyperfine coupling constants (hfc's) were obtained and from the angular dependence of the hfc's in three crystallographic planes, five complete hyperfine (hf) tensors were determined. Theoretical hf tensors were calculated by the all-valence-electron SCF molecular orbital method RHF-INDO/SP using the X-ray structure data of the dimer D and its amino acid environment. A comparison of the directions of the principal axes of the experimental and calculated hf tensors enabled us to identify the hfc's with specific protons on the two bacteriochlorophyll halves DL and DM of the dimer. The result shows that the unpaired valence electron is unequally distributed over the dimer halves, favoring DL by approx. 2:1. This ratio has been obtained from the proton hfc's of rotating methyl groups, which directly reflect the π-spin densities at the corresponding positions in the two macrocycles, DL and DM. It was further confirmed by recent 15N-ENDOR experiments on RC single crystals (Lendzian, F., Bonigk, B., Plato, M., Mobius, K. and Lubitz, W. (1992) in The Photosynthetic Bacterial Reaction Center II (Breton, J. and Vermeglio, A., eds.), pp. 89–97, Plenum Press, New York). The observed asymmetry of D+ is attributed to the difference in energies of the highest filled molecular π-orbitals of the monomeric halves, DL and DM, which is caused by differences in the structure of the two bacteriochlorophylls and/or their environment. Possible implications of this asymmetry for the electron transfer in the RC are discussed.

We have used time-resolved electron-paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy to investigate the triplet energy transfer in various covalently linked porphyrin dimers. For all these dimers the fine structure parameters are rather similar to the monomer values; thus according to the field-swept EPR spectra the triplet state appears to be localized on one monomeric subunit. However, for particular conformations, the time evolution of the EPR spectra reveals dynamic properties specific to a dimer. For these cases the hopping rates of the triplet exciton can be determined from the measured spin-lattice relaxation times. The values obtained for the different dimers can be related to structural parameters of the dimers and to the overlap of their electronic wavefunctions. Such overlap is essential for energy transfer via the exchange mechanism.

The triplet states of several substituted porphyrins (Tetraphenylporphyrin (H2TPP), Zinc-Tetramethylporphyrin (ZnTMP), Octaethylporphyrin (H2OEP) and the Dication of H2TPP (H4TPP2+)) and two covalently linked dimers with H2TPP-subunits in disordered solid solution were studied by EPR and ENDOR at liquid helium temperature. The measurement yields theAzz component of the hyperfine tensors of all α-protons in the reference frame of the zero field splitting tensor. Dipolar and isotropic contributions toAzz are discussed and spin densities derived. The spin densities are compared with results of all-valence-electrons self-consistent field molecular orbital calculations (RHF-INDO/S). One of the dimers shows indications of triplet energy transfer between the porphyrin subunits. The order of magnitude of the transfer rate is estimated to be 5 · 105 s−1.

Porphycene is a structural isomer of porphyrin. The photoexcited triplet states of porphycene, 2,7,12,17-tetra-n-propylporphycene and 9,10,19,20-tetra-n-propylporphycene in disordered solid solution were studied by EPR and ENDOR. The ENDOR spectra yield the hyperfine tensor elementsA zz for each of the different groups of equivalent protons. The dipolar contribution toA zz is estimated and spin densities are derived from the isotropic contribution. They are compared with results of all-valence-electrons self-consistent field molecular orbital calculations (RHF-INDO/SP and RHF-INDO/S).

Light-induced triplet electron transfer (ET) is observed in two isomeric cyclohexene-bridged porphyrin–quinones (P–Q) in highly viscous ethanol at temperatures between 130 and 150 K. Both the primary porphyrin triplet, TP–Q, and the triplet radical pair, T(P·+–Q·–), identified by their dipolar splittings and polarization patterns, are detected by time-resolved continuous-wave electron paramagnetic resonance (cw-EPR). A theoretical model is presented by which the kinetic traces at the turning points of the powder-type EPR spectrum of T(P·+–Q·–) are simulated. From the fits to the experimental data, values for the ET rate, kET, and the exchange integral, J, are estimated. At 150 K, for example, kET= 0.26 × 106 s–1(±0.02 × 106 s–1) and J=–1370 G (±60 G). The rates obtained for the charge recombination from the singlet radical pair to the ground state indicate that a distribution of J values has to be considered, even for P–Qs with a relatively rigid bridge.

Reaction centers (RCs) from the photosynthetic bacterium Rhodobacter (Rb.) sphaeroides R-26 exhibit changes in the recombination kinetics of the charge-separated radical-pair state, P(·+) Q(A)(·-), composed of the dimeric bacteriochlorophyll donor P and the ubiquinone-10 acceptor Q(A), depending on whether the RCs are cooled to cryogenic temperatures in the dark or under continuous illumination (Kleinfeld et al. Biochemistry 1984, 23, 5780-5786). Structural changes near redox-active cofactors have been postulated to be responsible for these changes in kinetics and to occur in the course of light-induced oxidation and reduction of the cofactors thereby assuring a high quantum yield. Here we investigated such potential light-induced structural changes, associated with the formation of P(·+) Q(A)(·-), via pulsed electron-nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) at Q-band (34 GHz) and pulsed electron-electron double resonance (PELDOR) at W-band (95 GHz). Two types of light excitation have been employed for which identical RC samples were prepared: (a) one sample was frozen in the dark and then illuminated to generate transient P(·+) Q(A)(·-), and (b) one was frozen under illumination which resulted in both trapped and transient P(·+) Q(A)(·-) at 80 K. The hyperfine interactions between Q(A)(·-) and the protein were found to be the same in RCs frozen in the dark as in RCs frozen under illumination. Furthermore, these interactions are completely consistent with those observed in RC crystals frozen in the dark. Thus, QA remains in its binding site with the same position and orientation upon reduction. This conclusion is consistent with the result of our orientation-resolving PELDOR experiments on transient P(·+) Q(A)(·-) radical pairs. However, these findings are incompatible with the recently proposed ~60° reorientation of Q(A) upon its photoreduction, as deduced from an analysis of Q-band quantum-beat oscillations (Heinen et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 15935-15946). Such a large reorientation appears improbable, and our objections against this proposition are substantiated here in detail. Our results show that Q(A) is initially in an orientation that is favorable for its light-driven reduction. This diminishes the reorganization requirements for fast electron reduction and high quantum efficiency.

The coupling between electron transfer (ET) and the conformational dynamics of the cofactor−protein complex in photosynthetic reaction centers (RCs) from Rhodobacter sphaeroides in water/glycerol solutions or embedded in dehydrated poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) films or trehalose glasses is reported. Matrix effects were studied by time-resolved 95 GHz high-field electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy at room (290 K) and low (150 K) temperature. ET from the photoreduced quinone acceptor (QA•−) to the photo-oxidized donor (P865•+) is strongly matrix-dependent at room temperature: In the trehalose glasses, the recombination kinetics of P865•+QA•−, probed by EPR and optical spectroscopies, is faster and broadly distributed as compared to that of RCs in solution, reflecting the inhibition of the RC relaxation from the dark- to the light-adapted conformational substate and the hindrance of substate interconversion. Similarly accelerated kinetics was observed also in PVA at a water-to-RC molar ratio 10-fold lower than in trehalose. Despite the matrix dependence of the ET kinetics, continuous-wave (cw) EPR and electron spin echo (ESE) analyses of the photogenerated P865•+ and QA•− radical ions and P865•+QA•− radical pairs do not reveal significant matrix effects, at either 290 or 150 K, indicating no change in the molecular radical-pair configuration of the P865•+ and QA•− cofactors. Furthermore, the field dependences of the transverse relaxation times T2 of QA•− essentially coincide in trehalose and PVA at 290 K. T2 is similar in these two matrixes and in the glycerol/water system at 150 K, implying that the librational dynamics of QA•− are also unaffected by the matrix. We infer that the relative geometry of the primary donor and acceptor, as well as the local dynamics and hydrogen bonding of QA in its binding pocket, are not involved in the stabilization of P865•+QA•−. We suggest that the RC relaxation occurs rather by changes throughout the protein/solvent system. The control of the RC dynamics and ET by the environment is discussed, particularly with respect to the extraordinary efficacy of trehalose matrixes in restricting the RC motional degrees of freedom at elevated temperatures.

The directionality of light-induced charge transfer in bacterial photosynthetic reaction centers (RCs) with respect to their A and B cofactor branches is still poorly understood on the electronic level. A prominent example is primary electron transfer in the RCs from the purple bacterium Rb. sphaeroides. Site-directed mutants with specific alterations of the cofactor binding sites with respect to the native system can deliver useful information toward a better understanding of the directionality enigma. Here we report on electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) studies of the LDHW quadruple mutant, HL(M182)/GD(M203)/LH(M214)/AW(M260), which contains crucial mutations in the electron-transfer pathway. The directionality of the charge separation process was studied under light- or dark-freezing conditions first directly by 95 GHz (W-band) high-field EPR spectroscopy examining the charge-separated radical pairs (P865•+ Q(B)•−) of the primary donor P865, a bacteriochlorophyll dimer, and the terminal acceptor, QB, a ubiquinone-10. Second, it was studied indirectly by 34 GHz (Q-band) EPR examining the triplet states of the primary donor ((3)P865) that occur as a byproduct of the photoreaction. At 10 K, the triplet state has been found to derive mainly from an intersystem crossing mechanism, indicating the absence of charge-separated radical-pair states with a lifetime longer than 10 ns. B-branch charge separation and formation of the triplet-state (3)P865 via a radical-pair mechanism can be induced with low yield at 10 K by direct excitation of the bacteriopheophytins in the B-branch at 537 nm. At this wavelength, charge separation most probably proceeds via hole transfer from bacteriopheophytin to the primary donor. The triplet state of the primary donor is found to be quenched by the carotenoid cofactor present in the RC. The light-induced transient EPR signal of P•+ Q(B)•− is formed in a minor fraction of RCs (1%) for RCs frozen in the dark. In contrast, about 70% of RCs illuminated upon freezing are trapped in the long-lived (τ104 s) charge-separated-state P•+ Q(B)•−. The temperature dependence of the EPR signals from P•+ Q(B)•− points to two factors responsible for the forward electron transfer to the terminal acceptor QB and for the charge-recombination reaction. The first factor involves a significant protein conformational change to initiate P•+ Q(B)•− charge separation, presumably by moving the quinone from the distal to the proximal position relative to the iron. The second factor includes protein relaxation, which governs the charge-recombination process along the B-branch pathway of the LDHW mutant.

The oxidized primary electron donor P865+ in reaction center single crystals of Rb. sphaeroides wild type 2.4.1 has been investigated by electron-nuclear-nuclear TRIPLE resonance techniques. The measured anisotropic and isotropic hyperfine couplings have been compared with data from the carotenoidless mutant R-26 of the same organism. There is no detectable structural difference of the dimer P865+ in both strains and its orientation in the crystal unit cell axes is the same within ±3°. However, a small shift of spin density towards the L-half of the dimer is observed due to the presence of the carotenoid.

From time-resolved direct detection cw EPR with pulsed laser excitation, the photoinduced electron transfer and spin dynamics (CIDEP) in mixed zinc-tetraphenylporphyrin (ZnTPP)/benzo-1,4-quinone (BQ) ethanol solutions were determined as functions of temperature and BQ concentration. At lower temperatures the EPR spectra reveal that mixing of the S and T−1 states in the charge separated radical pair gains in importance relative to the ST0 mixing. Furthermore, at lower temperatures, the EPR spectra of the spin-correlated radical pairs of ZnTPP+ and BQ7 could also be observed. From the temperature/viscosity dependence of the electron transfer rates and of the polarization contributions from the triplet and radical pair mechanisms, deviations from a macroscopic diffusion behaviour are inferred at lower temperatures.

The spin density distributions in the cation radicals of various covalently linked tetraphenyl porphyrin dimers and of their monomeric constituents have been studied by liquid-phase EPR, ENDOR and TRIPLE resonance methods to find out whether the dimer systems show intramolecular electron delocalization. Such delocalization is known to occur in the bacteriochlorophyll dimer (‘special pair’) in photosynthetic reaction centres. The dimers studied in this work are derived from zinc meso-tetraphenylporphyrin (ZnTPP) moieties linked either by a phenyl ring at para and meta positions or by a —CH2— bridge at para positions. 1H and 14N hyperfine coupling constants were measured for the dimer and ZnTPP cation radicals. By comparing the hyperfine data it was concluded that in the phenyl-bridged porphyrin dimers the unpaired electron is delocalized over the dimer halves (similar to the ‘special pair’) whereas in the CH2-bridged dimer the unpaired electron is localized on one porphyrin unit.

Phosphinoyl radicals were produced in benzene solution by photolysis of three acylphosphine oxide photoinitiators, diphenyl-2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl phosphine oxide (I), bis(2,6-dimethoxybenzoyl)-(2,4,4-trimethylpentyl) phosphine oxide (II), and bis(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl) phenylphospine oxide (III). The chemically induced dynamic electron polarization (CIDEP) of the radicals was measured by time-resolved electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy at different microwave frequencies/magnetic fields, in S- (2.8 GHz, 0.1 T), X- (9.7 GHz, 0.34 T), Q- (34.8 GHz, 1.2 T), and W-bands (95 GHz, 3.4 T). The CIDEP was found to be due to a triplet mechanism (TM) superimposed by a radical pair mechanism comprising ST(0) as well as ST(-) mixing. Contributions of the different CIDEP mechanisms were separated, and the dependence of the TM polarization on microwave frequency was determined. It agrees well with the numerical solution of the relevant stochastic Liouville equation, which proves the TM theory quantitatively. The applicability of previous approximate analytical formulas for the TM polarization is discussed. Parameters of the excited triplet state of III were estimated from the dependence of the TM polarization on microwave frequency. They are zero-field splitting constant 0.169 cm(-1)/= D(ZFS)/= 0.195 cm(-1), lifetime 40 ps/= tau(T)/= 200 ps, and initial population of its T(z)() spin sublevel 0.92/= w(z)()/= 1.

The light-induced electron transfer reaction of flavin cofactor photoactivation in Xenopus laevis (6–4) photolyase has been studied by continuous-wave and time-resolved electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. When the photoactivation is initiated from the fully oxidized form of the flavin, a neutral flavin radical is observed as a long-lived paramagnetic intermediate of two consecutive single-electron reductions under participation of redox-active amino acid residues. By time-resolved electron paramagnetic resonance, a spin-polarized transient radical-pair signal was detected that shows remarkable differences to the signals observed in the related cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer photolyase enzyme. In (6–4) photolyase, a neutral tyrosine radical has been identified as the final electron donor, on the basis of the characteristic line width, hyperfine splitting pattern, and resonance magnetic field position of the tyrosine resonances of the transient radical pair.

Structural changes in Escherichia coli DNA photolyase induced by binding of a (cis,syn)-cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) are studied by continuous-wave electron paramagnetic resonance and electron-nuclear double resonance spectroscopies, using the flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor in its neutral radical form as a naturally occurring electron spin probe. The electron paramagnetic resonance/electron-nuclear double resonance spectral changes are consistent with a large distance (≥0.6nm) between the CPD lesion and the 7,8-dimethyl isoalloxazine ring of FAD, as was predicted by recent model calculations on photolyase enzyme-substrate complexes. Small shifts of the isotropic proton hyperfine coupling constants within the FAD’s isoalloxazine moiety can be understood in terms of the cofactor binding site becoming more nonpolar because of the displacement of water molecules upon CPD docking to the enzyme. Molecular orbital calculations of hyperfine couplings using density functional theory, in conjunction with an isodensity polarized continuum model, are presented to rationalize these shifts in terms of the changed polarity of the medium surrounding the FAD cofactor.

Ultraviolet radiation promotes the formation of a cyclobutane ring between adjacent pyrimidine residues on the same DNA strand to form a pyrimidine dimer. Such dimers may be restored to their monomeric forms through the action of a light-absorbing enzyme named DNA photolyase. The redox-active cofactor involved in the light-induced electron transfer reactions of DNA repair and enzyme photoactivation is a noncovalently bound FAD. In this paper, the FAD cofactor of Escherichia coli DNA photolyase was characterized as the neutral flavin semiquinone by EPR spectroscopy at 9.68 and 94.5 GHz. From the high-frequency/high-field EPR spectrum, the principal values of the axially symmetric g-matrix of FADH(*) were extracted. Both EPR spectra show an emerging hyperfine splitting of 0.85 mT that could be assigned to the isotropic hyperfine coupling constant (hfc) of the proton at N(5). To obtain more information about the electron spin density distribution ENDOR and TRIPLE resonance spectroscopies were applied. All major proton hfc's could be measured and unambiguously assigned to molecular positions at the isoalloxazin moiety of FAD. The isotropic hfc's of the protons at C(8alpha) and C(6) are among the smallest values reported for protein-bound neutral flavin semiquinones so far, suggesting a highly restricted delocalization of the unpaired electron spin on the isoalloxazin moiety. Two further hfc's have been detected and assigned to the inequivalent protons at C(1'). Some conclusions about the geometrical arrangement of the ribityl side chain with respect to the isoalloxazin ring could be drawn: Assuming tetrahedral angles at C(1') the dihedral angle between the C(1')-C(2') bond and the 2p(z)() orbital at N(10) has been estimated to be 170.4 degrees +/- 1 degrees.

For an efficient charge separation in quinones coupled covalently with porphyrin, the MO coefficient in the HOMO of the porphyrin at the site of coupling should be as small as possible and the orientation of the quinone to the cyclohexane bridge as orthogonal as possible