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Groundwater : : journal of the Association of Ground-Water Scientists and Engineers, a division of the National Ground Water Association (2021). doi:10.1111/gwat.13087, Published by Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford [u.a.]

Tuberculosis (Tb), caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), is responsible for more than a million deaths annually. In the latent phase of infection, Mtb uses lipids as the source of carbon and energy for its survival. The lipid molecules are transported across the cell wall via multiple transport systems. One such set of widely present and less-studied transporters is the Mammalian-cell-entry (Mce) complexes. Here, we report the properties of the substrate-binding proteins (SBPs; MceA-F) of the Mce1 and Mce4 complexes from Mtb which are responsible for the import of mycolic acid/fatty acids, and cholesterol respectively. MceA-F are composed of four domains namely, transmembrane, MCE, helical and tail domains. Our studies show that MceA-F are predominantly monomeric when purified individually and do not form homohexamers unlike the reported homologs (MlaD, PqiB and LetB) from other prokaryotes. The crystal structure of MCE domain of Mtb Mce4A (MtMce4A39-140) determined at 2.9 Å shows the formation of an unexpected domain-swapped dimer in the crystals. Further, the purification and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) analysis on MtMce1A, MtMce4A and their domains suggest that the helical domain requires hydrophobic interactions with the detergent molecules for its stability. Combining all the experimental data, we propose a heterohexameric arrangement of MtMceA-F SBPs, where the soluble MCE domain of the SBPs would remain in the periplasm with the helical domain extending to the lipid layer forming a hollow channel for the transport of lipids across the membranes. The tail domain would reach the cell surface assisting in lipid recognition and binding.

The coordination chemistry of the tri- and tetradentate chelating phosphines (2-PPh2C6H4)2P(O)Ph (P3O) and (2-PPh2C6H4)3P (P4) with respect to d10 copper subgroup metal ions has been investigated. Depolymerization of (MC2R)n (M = Cu, Ag) with P4 affords the series of mono- and trinuclear complexes (P4)CuC2Ph (1), (P4)Cu3(C2Ph)3 (2), (P4)Ag3(C2Ph) (Hal)2 (Hal = Cl (3), Br (4), I (5)). Reactions of the M+ (M = Cu, Ag) ions with (M′C2R)n (M′ = Cu, Ag, Au) acetylides in the presence of P4 yield the family of dinuclear species [(P4)MM′(C2R)]+ (6–12), which comprise the Cu2/Ag2 (6, 7; R = Ph), AuCu (8–10; R = Ph, C(OH)Me2, C(OH)Ph2), and AuAg (11, 12; R = Ph, C(OH)Ph2) metal cores. A related triphosphine, (2-PPh2C6H4)2PPh (P3), applied in a similar protocol undergoes partial oxidation and leads to the heterotrimetallic clusters [{(P3O)M}2Au(C2R)2]+ (M = Cu, R = C(OH)Ph2, 13; M = Ag, R = C(OH)Ph2, 14; M = Ag, R = Ph, 15), which can be prepared more efficiently starting from the oxidized ligand P3O. The structure...

Platinum-based micromotors have shown many exciting applications when functionalized using gold–thiol chemistry. However, thiols are known to bind to the Pt surface, which can lead to serious deactivation of the catalyst. In this paper, it is demonstrated that MnO2 can be used to protect Pt-based micromotors prior to the thiol treatment, thus fully avoiding the catalyst poisoning. This approach will greatly facilitate the use of the functionalized Pt micromotors for which the thiol toxicity has been a limiting factor.

Catechol oxidases and tyrosinases are coupled binuclear copper enzymes that oxidize various o-diphenolic compounds to corresponding o-quinones. Tyrosinases have an additional monooxygenation ability to hydroxylate monophenol to o-diphenol. It is still not clear what causes the difference in the catalytic activities. We solved a complex structure of Aspergillus oryzae catechol oxidase with resorcinol bound into the active site. Catalytic activity of A. oryzae catechol oxidase was studied, for the first time, by high-resolution FT-ICR mass spectrometry to shed light on the reaction mechanism. The enzyme was also found to catalyze monooxygenation of small phenolics, which provides a novel perspective for the discussion of differences in the catalytic activity between tyrosinases and catechol oxidases. According to the results, two binding modes for resorcinol are suggested and a reaction mechanism for coupled binuclear copper enzymes is discussed.

Four out of six officially recognized dog allergens are members of the lipocalin protein family. So far, a three-dimensional structure has been determined for only one dog allergen, Can f 2, which is a lipocalin protein. We present here the crystal structure of a second lipocalin allergen from dog, a variant of Can f 4. Moreover, we have compared and analyzed the structures of these two weakly homologous (amino acid identity 21%) dog allergens. The size and the amino acid composition of the ligand-binding pocket indicate that Can f 4 is capable of binding only relatively small hydrophobic molecules which are different from those that Can f 2 is able to bind. The crystal structure of Can f 4 contained both monomeric and dimeric forms of the allergen, suggesting that Can f 4 is able to form transient (weak) dimers. The existence of transient dimers in solution was confirmed by use of native mass spectrometry. The dimeric structure of Can f 4 is formed when the ends of four β-strands are packed against the same strands from the second monomer. The residues in the interface are mainly hydrophobic and the formation of the dimer is similar to the major horse allergen Equ c 1. Interestingly, the crystal structure of dog Can f 2 has been reported to show a different type of dimer formation. The capability of these allergens to form dimers may be important for the development of immediate allergic reaction (mast cell activation) because oligomeric allergens can effectively present multivalent epitopes.

A laboratory-scale reactor was used to produce pyrolysis oils from Finnish silver birch hardwood (Betula pendula). The resulting wood distillates were characterized by ultrahigh-resolution (12 T) Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) mass spectrometry coupled with negative-ion electrospray ionization (ESI). Two different pyrolysis temperatures were tested: 300 and 380 °C (the resulting oil samples were named as Oil-300 and Oil-380, respectively). The detected species were sorted on the basis of heteroatom class, carbon number, and double bond equivalent (DBE). About 1200 and 1400 unique compounds were identified from the ESI FT-ICR spectra of Oil-300 and Oil-380, respectively. These were mainly oxygen-containing compounds (Ox heteroatom classes, with x = 2–14), comprising up to 90% of all identified compounds. The compounds in the O2, O3, and O4 classes comprised of different fatty acids, hydroxy/epoxy fatty acids, and diacids. The compounds in the O5–O8 classes comprised of mainly lignin deg...

Zinc metalloproteins are one of the most abundant and structurally diverse proteins in nature. In these proteins, the Zn(II) ion possesses a multifunctional role as it stabilizes the fold of small zinc fingers, catalyzes essential reactions in enzymes of all six classes, or assists in the formation of biological oligomers. Previously, a number of database surveys have been conducted on zinc proteins to gain broader insights into their rich coordination chemistry. However, many of these surveys suffer from severe flaws and misinterpretations or are otherwise limited. To provide a more comprehensive, up-to-date picture on zinc coordination environments in proteins, zinc containing protein structures deposited in the Protein Data Bank (PDB) were analyzed in detail. A statistical analysis in terms of zinc coordinating amino acids, metal-to-ligand bond lengths, coordination number, and structural classification was performed, revealing coordination spheres from classical tetrahedral cysteine/histidine binding sites to more complex binuclear sites with carboxylated lysine residues. According to the results, coordination spheres of hundreds of crystal structures in the PDB could be misinterpreted due to symmetry-related molecules or missing electron densities for ligands. The analysis also revealed increasing average metal-to-ligand bond length as a function of crystallographic resolution, which should be taken into account when interrogating metal ion binding sites. Moreover, one-third of the zinc ions present in crystal structures are artifacts, merely aiding crystal formation and packing with no biological significance. Our analysis provides solid evidence that a minimal stable zinc coordination sphere is made up by four ligands and adopts a tetrahedral coordination geometry.

Ultrahigh-resolution Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry was used for compositional analysis of polar and asphaltene fractions of complex oil residues. The samples were collected before and after the processing of oil in a residue hydrocracking unit, in which the feed oil was the vacuum distillation residue of the crude oil, and the product sample was the residue collected after the processing. From the asphaltene fraction, as many as ∼26 000 peaks were detected by atmospheric pressure photoionization and more than ∼33 000 peaks by positive-ion electrospray ionization (ESI), with up to 18 distinct heteroatom classes identified. Negative-ion ESI provided complementary information through selective ionization of acidic compounds. The detected species were sorted based on heteroatom class, carbon number and aromaticity (double bond equivalence, i.e. number of rings + double bonds to carbon). The N1 class compounds were predominant in both fractions of the feed and product oils. The su...

Treatment of Au(SC(4)H(8))Cl with a stoichiometric amount of hydroxyaliphatic alkyne in the presence of NEt(3) results in high-yield self-assembly of homoleptic clusters (AuC(2)R)(10) (R = 9-fluorenol (1), diphenylmethanol (2), 2,6-dimethyl-4-heptanol (3), 3-methyl-2-butanol (4), 4-methyl-2-pentanol (4), 1-cyclohexanol (6), 2-borneol (7)). The molecular compounds contain an unprecedented catenane metal core with two interlocked 5-membered rings. Reactions of the decanuclear clusters 1-7 with gold-diphosphine complex [Au(2)(1,4-PPh(2)-C(6)H(4)-PPh(2))(2)](2+) lead to octanuclear cationic derivatives [Au(8)(C(2)R)(6)(PPh(2)-C(6)H(4)-PPh(2))(2)](2+) (8-14), which consist of planar tetranuclear units {Au(4)(C(2)R)(4)} coupled with two fragments [AuPPh(2)-C(6)H(4)-PPh(2)(AuC(2)R)](+). The titled complexes were characterized by NMR and ESI-MS spectroscopy, and the structures of 1, 13, and 14 were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. The luminescence behavior of both Au(I)(10) and Au(I)(8) families has been studied, revealing efficient room-temperature phosphorescence in solution and in the solid state, with the maximum quantum yield approaching 100% (2 in solution). DFT computational studies showed that in both Au(I)(10) and Au(I)(8) clusters metal-centered Au → Au charge transfer transitions mixed with some π-alkynyl MLCT character play a dominant role in the observed phosphorescence.

The noncovalent complexation of three glucosylcalix[4]arenes (1–3) towards 23 mono- and dicarboxylic acid anions were studied by ESI-FTICR mass spectrometry. Competitive complexation, collision-induced dissociation and gas-phase H/D-exchange experiments were performed to obtain information on selectivity of calixarenes towards carboxylates and characteristics of their complexes. The flexibility and number of glucose units of the host and the spatial disposition of the hydrogen bonding groups on the carboxylate guests were found to affect the selectivity of complexation strongly. The glucosylcalixarenes exhibited particular selectivity for dicarboxylic acid anions incorporating π-systems, and clear isomeric selectivity was observed for isophthalic among phthalic acid anions and for fumaric acid over maleic acid anion. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The gas-phase behavior and stability of [RuX2(CO)2(dcbpy)], [OsX2(CO)2(dcbpy)], and [OsI2(CO)2(mcbpy)] (X = Cl, Br, I; dcbpy = 2,2′-bipyridine-4,4′-dicarboxylic acid; mcbpy = 2,2′-bipyridine-4-carboxylic acid) were studied by electrospray ionization (ESI) Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) mass spectrometry. Negative-ion ESI produced abundant singly and doubly deprotonated molecules for all of the compounds, without apparent changes in the metal atom oxidation state or the ligand coordination. The characteristic fragment ions resulting from the decarboxylation (loss of CO2) in one of the carboxylic acid substituents of the dcbpy ligand were also observed. The gas-phase fragmentation was investigated by means of collision-induced dissociation (CID) and infrared multiphoton dissociation (IRMPD) techniques. The most favored fragmentation pathway included the loss of CO2, followed by one or two decarbonylations. Fragmentation was observed to be both qualitatively and quantitatively dependent o...

Hydrophobins are a group of low-molecular-mass, cysteine-rich proteins that have unusual biophysical properties. They are highly surface-active and can self-assemble at hydrophobic–hydrophilic interfaces, forming surface layers that are able to reverse the hydropathy of surfaces. Here we describe a novel hydrophobin from the edible mushroom Grifola frondosa, which was named HGFI and belongs to class I. The hydrophobin gene was identified during sequencing of random clones from a cDNA library, and the corresponding protein was isolated as a hot SDS-insoluble aggregate from the cell wall. The purified HGFI was found to have 83 amino acids. The protein sequence deduced from the cDNA sequence had 107 amino acids, from which a 24 aa signal sequence had been cleaved off in the mature protein. This signal sequence was 5 aa longer than had been predicted on the basis of signal peptide analysis of the cDNA. Rodlet mosaic structures were imaged using atomic force microscopy (AFM) on mica surfaces after drying-down HGFI solutions. Using Langmuir films we were also able to take images of both the hydrophobic and hydrophilic sides of films formed at the air–water interface. No distinct structure was observed in films compressed once, but in films compressed several times rodlet structures could be seen. Most rodlets were aligned in the same direction, indicating that formation of rodlets may be promoted during compression of the monolayer.

In order to study the effects of the precursor ion type and the carbohydrate structure on the fragmentation of neutral unsubstituted oligosaccharides in collision-induced dissociation (CID), a systematic study of deprotonated, protonated, ammoniated and alkali metal cationized cello-, malto- and xylooligosaccharides was carried out using a quadrupole ion trap (QIT) and Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) mass spectrometry. The fragmentation pathway was highly dependent on the choice of the precursor ion type. Deprotonated precursors gave rise to both glycosidic and cross-ring fragmentation, with clear differences among the three oligosaccharides, therefore being the most prominent for structural analysis. The fragmentation behavior of the xylooligosaccharides differed from that of the cello- and maltooligosaccharides for all the precursor ions studied, most remarkably with the deprotonated and ammoniated precursors. Stereochemical differentiation of cello- and maltooligosaccharides was possible with the use of deprotonated, lithiated and sodiated precursors. In general, as the size of the alkali metal cation increased the amount of structurally informative cross-ring fragmentation increased, but the probability for metal ion loss from the precursor ion also increased. The CID spectra of xylooligosaccharides measured with the QIT and FT-ICR were surprisingly similar.

A gene encoding a novel extracellular subtilisin-like protease was cloned from the ascomycete Fusarium equiseti and expressed in Trichoderma reesei. The F. equiseti protease (Fe protease) showed excellent performance in stain removal and good compatibility with several commercial laundry detergent formulations, suggesting that it has high potential for use in various industrial applications. The recombinant enzyme was purified and characterized. The temperature optimum of the Fe protease was 60 °C and it showed high activity in the pH range of 6–10, with a sharp decline in activity at pH above 10. The amino acid specificity of the Fe protease was studied using casein, cytochrome c, and ubiquitin as substrates. The Fe protease had broad substrate specificity: almost all amino acid residues were accepted at position P1, even though it showed some preference for cleavage at the C-terminal side of asparagine and histidine residues. The S4 subsite of Fe protease favors aspartic acid and threonine. The other well-characterized proteases from filamentous fungi, Proteinase K from Engyodontium album, Thermomycolin from Malbranchea sulfurea, and alkaline subtilisins from Bacillus species prefer hydrophobic amino acids in both the S1 and S4 subsites. Due to its different specificity compared to the members of the S8 family of clan SB of proteases, we consider that the Fe protease is a new protease. It does not belong to any previously defined IUBMB groups of proteases.

(Figure Presented) Agrobacterium tumefaciens (At) strain C58 contains an oxidative enzyme pathway that can function on both D-glucuronic and D-galacturonic acid. The corresponding gene coding for At keto-deoxy-D-galactarate (KDG) dehydratase is located in the same gene cluster as those coding for uronate dehydrogenase (At Udh) and galactarolactone cycloisomerase (At Gci) which we have previously characterized. Here, we present the kinetic characterization and crystal structure of At KDG dehydratase, which catalyzes the next step, the decarboxylating hydrolyase reaction of KDG to produce α-ketoglutaric semialdehyde (α-KGSA) and carbon dioxide. The crystal structures of At KDG dehydratase and its complexes with pyruvate and 2-oxoadipic acid, two substrate analogues, were determined to 1.7 A˚, 1.5 A˚, and 2.1 A˚ resolution, respectively. Furthermore, mass spectrometry was used to confirm reaction end-products. The results lead us to propose a structure-based mechanism for At KDG dehydratase, suggesting that while the enzyme belongs to the Class I aldolase protein family, it does not follow a typical retro-aldol condensation mechanism.

Xylanase was produced by growing Thermomyces lanuginosus DSM 10635 in different carbohydrate containing media. The xylanase was purified to electrophoretic homogeneity and some of its enzymatic properties were studied. The molecular mass of this xylanase estimated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) was 25.5 kDa, and the p I was approximately 3.7. Applying mass spectrometric analysis, the average molecular mass of the xylanase was determined to be 21295.17 Da, which is practically the same as the theoretical molecular mass of the T. lanuginosus DSM 5826 xylanase (crystal structure 1yna). Accordingly, the thermostability and enzymatic properties of DSM 10635 xylanase were similar to DSM 5826 xylanase. The inactivation of DSM 10635 xylanase during the elevation of temperature proceeded slowly at pH 6.5 and 8.0, whereas at pH 5.0, the inactivation profile was steep, indicating that changes in the electrostatic interactions decrease the stability at lower pH. The thermostabilizing effect of the substrate on DSM 10635 xylanase was studied and it was observed to be significant only under acidic conditions. The half-life in the presence of 1% birchwood xylan (w/v) was 7-fold, 4-fold and 1.5-fold higher than without the substrate at pH 4.0, 5.0 and 6.5, respectively. No increase in the stability by the presence of substrate was observed at pH 9.0.

We have successfully engineered a disulphide bridge into the N-terminal region of Trichoderma reesei endo-1,4-beta-xylanase II (XYNII) by substituting Thr-2 and Thr-28 with cysteine. The T2C:T28C mutational changes increased the half-life in thermal inactivation of this mesophilic enzyme from approximately 40 s to approximately 20 min at 65 degrees C, and from less than 10 s to approximately 6 min at 70 degrees C. Therefore, the N-terminal disulphide bridge enables the use of XYNII at substantially higher temperatures than permitted by its native mesophilic counterpart. Altogether, thermostability increased by about 15 degrees C. The kinetic properties of the mutant XYNII were maintained at the level of the wild type enzyme. Our findings demonstrated that a properly designed disulphide bridge, here within the N-terminal region of XYNII, can be very effective in resisting thermal inactivation.

A new series of homoleptic alkynyl complexes, [{Au2Cu2(C2R)4}n] (R=C3H7O (1), C6H11O (2), C9H19O (3), C13H11O (4)), were obtained from Au(SC4H8)Cl, Cu(NCMe)4PF6, and the corresponding alkyne in the presence of a base (NEt3). Complexes 1-4 aggregate upon crystallization into polymeric chains through extensive metallophilic interactions. The cluster that contains fluorenolyl functionalities, C13H9O (5), crystallizes in its molecular form as a disolvate, [Au2Cu2(C2C13H9O)4]·2THF. The substitution of weakly bound THF molecules with pyridine molecules leads to the complex [Au2Cu2(C2C13H9O)4]·2py (6), thus giving two polymorphs in the solid state. Such structural diversity is established through metal-chain and hydrogen-bond formation, which depends on the stereochemical characteristics of the organic ligands. More interestingly, this solid-state structural arrangement affords good emission properties, such as intensity and spectroscopic profile, which are otherwise very weakly emissive in solution. Metallophilic aggregation of the {Au2Cu2} cluster units, as observed in the crystals, results in dramatic enhancement of the room-temperature phosphorescence, thereby reaching a maximum quantum efficiency of 95% (4). A theoretical approach further indicates a synergistic effect of the array of the metal chain upon aggregation, which greatly enhances the spin-orbit coupling and, hence, the phosphorescence, thereby opening up a new direction in the field of aggregate-enhanced emission.

The noncovalent complexation of monoamine neurotransmitters and related ammonium and quaternary ammonium ions by a conformationally flexible tetramethoxy glucosylcalix[4]arene was studied by electrospray ionization Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (ESI-FTICR) mass spectrometry. The glucosylcalixarene exhibited highest binding affinity towards serotonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine. Structural properties of the guests, such as the number, location, and type of hydrogen bonding groups, length of the alkyl spacer between the ammonium head-group and the aromatic ring structure, and the degree of nitrogen substitution affected the complexation. Competition experiments and guest-exchange reactions indicated that the hydroxyl groups of guests participate in intermolecular hydrogen bonding with the glucocalixarene.

Acetaldehyde can generate modifications in several proteins, such as carbonic anhydrase (CA) II. In this study, we extended in vitro investigations on acetaldehyde adduct formation by focusing on the other human cytosolic CA enzymes I, III, VII, and XIII. High-resolution mass spectrometric analysis indicated that acetaldehyde most efficiently formed covalent adducts with CA II and XIII. The binding of up to 19 acetaldehydes in CA II is probably attributable to the high number of lysine residues (n = 24) located mainly on the surface of the enzyme molecule. CA XIII formed more adducts (up to 25) than it contains lysine residues (n = 16) in its primary structure. Acetaldehyde treatment induced only minor changes in CA catalytic activity in most cases. The present study provides the first evidence that acetaldehyde can bind to several cytosolic CA isozymes. The functional consequences of such modifications will be further investigated in vivo by using animal models.

A stereoselective synthesis of thioxylo-di-, -tri-, -tetra- and -penta-saccharides from S -glycosyl isothiourea precursors is described. The synthesis was performed starting from 2,3,4-tri- O -acetyl-β- d -xylopyranosyl isothiouronium bromide using a triethylamine promoted reaction with 1,2,3-tri- O -benzoyl-4- O -trifluoromethanesulphonyl-β- l -arabinopyranose. The resulting 4-thioxylobiose was then converted into the corresponding isothiouronium bromide and used for the synthesis of 4,4′-dithioxylotriose. Higher homologues of the series and their α-methyl glycosides were also prepared.

Thymoquinone (TQ), an active component of Nigella sativa L., is known to have anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory effects; however, no studies on its analytical detection in serum and its protein binding have been published. Using high performance liquid chromatography analysis, we show that the average recovery of TQ from serum is 2.5% at 10 μg/ml of TQ and 72% at 100 μg/ml. The low recovery of TQ from serum is due to its extensive binding to plasma proteins, as more than 99% of TQ was bound within 30 min of incubation. The binding of TQ to the major plasma proteins, bovine serum albumin (BSA) and alpha -1 acid glycoprotein (AGP), was studied and found to be 94.5 ± 1.7% for BSA and 99.1 ± 0.1% for AGP. Mass spectrometric analysis revealed that TQ was bound covalently to BSA, specifically on Cyst-34. Using WST-1 proliferation assay, we showed that BSA plays a protective role against TQ-induced cell death; pre-incubation with BSA prevented TQ from exerting its anti-proliferative effects against DLD-1 and HCT-116 human colon cancer cells. On the other hand, binding of TQ to AGP did not alter its anti-proliferative activity against both cell lines. When TQ was pre-incubated with AGP prior to the addition of BSA, the activity of TQ against DLD-1 was maintained, suggesting that AGP prevented the binding of TQ to BSA. This is the first time the covalent binding and inhibitory effect of BSA on TQ is documented. These data offer new grounds for TQ future pharmacokinetic analysis in vivo.The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s12154-010-0052-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Carbonic anhydrase (CA) enzymes are expressed in all organs of the mammalian body where they participate in important physiological functions. CA VII is a cytosolic isozyme which may be expressed as two forms according to the recent GenBank data. We designed a present study to express and characterize the human CA VII forms: full-length CA VII and short form (predicted to lack 56 residues from the N-terminus). Reverse transcriptase PCR analysis revealed mRNAs for both CA VII forms in the human brain. These different forms were expressed as recombinant proteins to investigate their biochemical properties. The full-length CA VII was used to raise a polyclonal antiserum in a rabbit, and the antiserum was then employed in western blot analyses and immunohistochemistry of mouse tissues. Data from mass spectrometry and comparative modeling showed that CA VII protein contains a single intramolecular disulfide bridge (Cys-56 to Cys-180) which is lacking in the short form. The computer model suggested distinctly different folding for the different forms. The more exposed structure and the absence of the disulfide bridge in the short form could make this protein more susceptible to degradation. In fact, this was realized in several protein purification efforts in which the short form readily degraded during the experimental procedures. From these results, we conclude that the full-length CA VII is a predominant active form in human brain and also in other tissues. In addition to the brain, CA VII is expressed in several other organs including the stomach, duodenum, colon, liver, and skeletal muscle. The distribution pattern suggests multiple functions for CA VII in different organs.

Melanocarpus albomyces laccase crystals were soaked with 2,6-dimethoxyphenol, a common laccase substrate. Three complex structures from different soaking times were solved. Crystal structures revealed the binding of the original substrate and adducts formed by enzymatic oxidation of the substrate. The dimeric oxidation products were identified by mass spectrometry. In the crystals, a 2,6-dimethoxy-p-benzoquinone and a C–O dimer were observed, whereas a C–C dimer was the main product identified by mass spectrometry. Crystal structures demonstrated that the substrate and/or its oxidation products were bound in the pocket formed by residues Ala191, Pro192, Glu235, Leu363, Phe371, Trp373, Phe427, Leu429, Trp507 and His508. Substrate and adducts were hydrogen-bonded to His508, one of the ligands of type 1 copper. Therefore, this surface-exposed histidine most likely has a role in electron transfer by laccases. Based on our mutagenesis studies, the carboxylic acid residue Glu235 at the bottom of the binding site pocket is also crucial in the oxidation of phenolics. Glu235 may be responsible for the abstraction of a proton from the OH group of the substrate and His508 may extract an electron. In addition, crystal structures revealed a secondary binding site formed through weak dimerization in M. albomyces laccase molecules. This binding site most likely exists only in crystals, when the Phe427 residues are packed against each other.

Carbonic anhydrase IX (CA IX) is an exceptional member of the CA protein family; in addition to its classical role in pH regulation, it has also been proposed to participate in cell proliferation, cell adhesion, and tumorigenic processes. To characterize the biochemical properties of this membrane protein, two soluble recombinant forms were produced using the baculovirus-insect cell expression system. The recombinant proteins consisted of either the CA IX catalytic domain only (CA form) or the extracellular domain, which included both the proteoglycan and catalytic domains (PG + CA form). The produced proteins lacked the small transmembrane and intracytoplasmic regions of CA IX. Stopped-flow spectrophotometry experiments on both proteins demonstrated that in the excess of certain metal ions the PG + CA form exhibited the highest catalytic activity ever measured for any CA isozyme. Investigations on the oligomerization and stability of the enzymes revealed that both recombinant proteins form dimers that are stabilized by intermolecular disulfide bond(s). Mass spectrometry experiments showed that CA IX contains an intramolecular disulfide bridge (Cys119-Cys299) and a unique N-linked glycosylation site (Asn309) that bears high mannose-type glycan structures. Parallel experiments on a recombinant protein obtained by a mammalian cell expression system demonstrated the occurrence of an additional O-linked glycosylation site (Thr78) and characterized the nature of the oligosaccharide structures. This study provides novel information on the biochemical properties of CA IX and may help characterize the various cellular and pathophysiological processes in which this unique enzyme is involved.

Background Acetaldehyde, the first metabolite of ethanol, can generate covalent modifications of proteins and cellular constituents. However, functional consequences of such modification remain poorly defined. In the present study, we examined acetaldehyde reaction with human carbonic anhydrase (CA) isozyme II, which has several features that make it a suitable target protein: It is widely expressed, its enzymatic activity can be monitored, its structural and catalytic properties are known, and it contains 24 lysine residues, which are accessible sites for aldehyde reaction. Results Acetaldehyde treatment in the absence and presence of a reducing agent (NaBH3(CN)) caused shifts in the pI values of CA II. SDS-PAGE indicated a shift toward a slightly higher molecular mass. High-resolution mass spectra of CA II, measured with and without NaBH3(CN), indicated the presence of an unmodified protein, as expected. Mass spectra of CA II treated with acetaldehyde revealed a modified protein form (+26 Da), consistent with a "Schiff base" formation between acetaldehyde and one of the primary NH2 groups (e.g., in lysine side chain) in the protein structure. This reaction was highly specific, given the relative abundance of over 90% of the modified protein. In reducing conditions, each CA II molecule had reacted with 9–19 (14 on average) acetaldehyde molecules (+28 Da), consistent with further reduction of the "Schiff bases" to substituted amines (N-ethyllysine residues). The acetaldehyde-modified protein showed decreased CA enzymatic activity. Conclusion The acetaldehyde-derived modifications in CA II molecule may have physiological consequences in alcoholic patients.