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The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of particle sizes on yield, diffusivity, mass transfer and morphological characterization on extraction rate of rubber seed oil recovery by supercritical carbon dioxide (ScCO2). Pressure 30 MPa, temperature 60 oC and average particle size 500 µm gives the maximum oil recovery (34.71%), diffusivity coefficient (5.13 E-12 m2/s) and extraction rate (0.6 mg/sec). The morphological characterization of extracted rubber seeds was done on the basis of scanning electron microscopy which was parallel with the results of the effect of particle size. The results obtained from gas chromatography-mass spectrometry showed that the rubber seeds oil contained significant essential fatty acids and certain chemical constituents which are very valuable.

Due to industrial expansion (printing, rubber, plastics, textiles, cosmetics, leather industries, etc.), various types of synthetic dyes are discharged into the water bodies which cause severe hazards to the environment. Therefore, these dyes need to eliminate from the wastewater using potential adsorbent materials. Graphene-Silver oxide nanocomposite (GO-Ag) was synthesized by modified Hummer’s method using lemon juice as a reducing agent. This adsorbent was employed for malachite green (MG) removal from the aqueous solution. The chemically synthesized adsorbent was characterised using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The efficiency of GO-Ag nanocomposite was studied under different experimental limits such as solution concentration, time and pH. The capacity of adsorption of dye (MG) was observed to be 65.21 mg/g at pH 8. The adsorption of malachite green onto GO-Ag nanocomposite best fit to Freundlich model and followed the pseudo-second order of kinetic model. The method can be applied to dyes removal in wastewaters.

Naturally active compounds are usually contained inside plants and materials thereof. Thus, the extraction of the active compounds from plants needs appropriate extraction methods. The commonly employed extraction methods are mostly based on solid-liquid extraction. Frequently used conventional extraction methods such as maceration, heat-assisted extraction, Soxhlet extraction, and hydrodistillation are often criticized for large solvent consumption and long extraction times. Therefore, many advanced extraction methods incorporating various technologies such as ultrasound, microwaves, high pressure, high voltage, enzyme hydrolysis, innovative solvent systems, adsorption, and mechanical forces have been studied. These advanced extraction methods are often better than conventional methods in terms of higher yields, higher selectivity, lower solvent consumption, shorter processing time, better energy efficiency, and potential to avoid organic solvents. They are usually designed to be greener, more sustainable, and environment friendly. In this review, we have critically described recently developed extraction methods pertaining to obtaining active compounds from plants and materials thereof. Main factors that affect the extraction performances are tuned, and extraction methods are chosen in line with the properties of targeted active compounds or the objectives of extraction. The review also highlights the advancements in extraction procedures by using combinations of extraction methods to obtain high overall yields or high purity extracts.

Currently, there is increasing interest on low cost and commercially available materials for the adsorp-tion of heavy metals. The vital benefits of adsorption technologies are its potential in reducing the concentration of heavy metal ions using low-cost adsorbent materials. Fruit peel wastes (FPW) are readily available in abundance. Furthermore, it has a high potential as a sustainable adsorbent due to its large quantity of lignocellulosic materials. Realizing this potential, there are many studies on various fruit peels waste adsorbents used in the removal of Pb (II), Cu (II) and Cd (II) ions from wastewater. However, there is no comprehensive review of these adsorbents, especially on the factors that influenced the adsorption capacity. Hence, this review aims to study on the various fruit peels waste adsorbents and the factors by comparing the metal binding capacities, metal removal perfor-mances, sorbent dosage, optimum pH, temperature, initial concentration and contact time. Finally, the adsorption mechanisms were also discussed.

The massive production of rice straw could eventually lead to uncontrolled air pollution due to open burning activity. In this study, the rice straw was treated with alkaline hydrogen peroxide (AHP) to remove silica as well as to maximize the hydrolysis of the treated rice straw. Thus the study aimed to determine the effects of reaction parameters (i.e. AHP concentrations, particle sizes of rice straw, and temperature) towards the pretreatment with AHP in a batch system. From the characterization analysis, the rice straw sample contained high amount of silica (20%) and lignin (20%). From the study, >83.8% silica removal, 80% of delignification, and 7.88% of reduced sugar were achieved at optimum conditions of 60 °C with 10% AHP solution for sample with

This investigation reports on the biosorption mechanism of Congo Red dyes (CR) in aqueous solution using acid-treated durian peels, prepared for this study. The biosorbent nature was characterized using the Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and Brunaure-Emmet-Teller (BET). The effect of process parameters within operational range of pH (2–9), contact time (10–200 min), initial concentration (25–400 mg g−1) and temperature (25–65 °C) for the optimum removal of CR dyes was investigated using central composite design (CCD) under response surface methodology (RSM), and revealed that the optimum condition of biosorption was achieved around a pH of 5.5, contact time of 105 min at initial concentration of 212.5 mg L−1 within 45 °C temperature, which corresponds to 95.2% percent removal of CR. The experimental data fitted better to the second order polynomial model, with a correlation coefficient R2 value of 0.9917 and the Langmuir isotherm model with biosorption capacity of 107.52 mg g−1. Gibbs free energy indicated that the adsorption of CR dyes was spontaneous. The mechanism of the adsorption of CR dyes revealed that the biosorption of CR dyes investigated under different operational conditions show that under acidic pH, the adsorption efficiency of the acid treated durian peels is enhanced for the adsorption of CR dye molecules.

Eucalyptus globulus is an aromatic medicinal plant which known for its 1,8-cineole main pharmacological constituent exhibits as natural analgesic agent. Eucalyptus globulus-loaded micellar nanoparticle was developed via spontaneous emulsification technique and further evaluation for its analgesic efficacy study, in vivo analgesic activity assay in rats. The nanoemulsion system containing Eucalyptus-micelles was optimized at different surfactant types (Tween 40, 60 and 80) and concentrations (3.0, 6.0, 9.0, 12.0, 15.0, and 18.0 wt. %). These formulations were characterized by thermodynamically stability, viscosity, micelles particle size, pH, and morphology structure. The spontaneous emulsification technique offered a greener micelles formation in nanoemulsion system by slowly titrated of organic phase, containing Eucalyptus globulus (active compound), grape seed oil (carrier oil) and hydrophilic surfactant into aqueous phase, and continuously stirred for 30 min to form a homogeneity solution. The characterizations evaluation revealed an optimized formulation with Tween 40 surfactant type at 9.0 wt. % of surfactant concentration promoted the most thermodynamic stability, smaller micelles particle size (d = 17.13 ± 0.035 nm) formed with spherical shape morphological structure, and suitable in viscosity (≈2.3 cP) and pH value (6.57) for transdermal purpose. The in vivo analgesic activity assay of optimized emulsion showed that the transdermal administration of micellar nanoparticle of Eucalyptus globulus on fore and hind limb of rats, possessed the central and peripheral analgesic effects by prolonged the rats pain responses towards the heat stimulus after being put on top of hot plate (55 °C), with longest time responses, 40.75 s at 60 min after treatment administration. Thus, this study demonstrated that micellar nanoparticle of Eucalyptus globulus formed in nanoemulsion system could be promising as an efficient transdermal nanocarrier for the analgesic therapy alternative.

Reverse micelle extraction of erythromycin and amoxicillin were studied by using eco-friendly sophorolipids biosurfactant. Application of biosurfactant can further improve reverse micelle extraction in terms of sustainability and environmental friendliness compared to synthetic surfactants. The mass transfer behavior of the antibiotics during reverse micelle extraction was investigated. Experimental results show that the reverse micelle extraction of amoxicillin and erythromycin were completed within 200 s. The range of combined mass transfer coefficients obtained is 1.748 × 10−8 to 1.064 × 10−7 for reverse micelle extraction of amoxicillin and 3.395 × 10−7 to 1.131 × 10−6 for erythromycin. The rate limiting steps for each extraction process were identified. The overall mass transfer coefficients of backward extraction were found to be lower than that of forward extraction for both antibiotics which indicates that the forward extraction process was more efficient and faster than the backward extraction. Comparisons between erythromycin and amoxicillin showed that erythromycin has better equilibrium partitioning and larger calculated overall mass transfer coefficients compared to amoxicillin. This may be due to some differences in behaviors and characteristics of amoxicillin and erythromycin during the reverse micelle extraction process. This reverse micelle extraction method was found to be more efficient in extracting erythromycin compared to amoxicillin.

Surfactants have the ability to form nano-sized micelles in the aqueous phase and reverse micelles in the organic phase through a self-assembly process. The micelles and reverse micelles are able to encapsulate various substances. This phenomenon has been exploited for the extraction and separation of various biomolecules. Micelle-based extraction techniques have many benefits including low solvent consumption, utilization of safe solvents, easy operation, fast extraction process, good selectivity, high extraction efficiency, and protection of encapsulated biomolecules. Biosurfactants have many advantages like high biodegradability, high specificity, low toxicity, biocompatible, environmentally friendly, and stable at extreme conditions. They are produced from renewable and cheap resources. Many biosurfactants also possess better surface activity compared to chemical surfactants. Therefore, biosurfactants are a good alternative to chemical surfactants in micelle-based extraction techniques.

In the present work, acid treated natural oil palm trunk powder (OPTP) has been utilized as novel adsorbents for the removal of methyl orange (MO) from aqueous solution. The batch method was employed to study the adsorption behavior of MO which was subsequently determined by UV/Visible spectrophotometer. The adsorption characteristics and operational parameters were determined by monitoring different parameters such as pH, contact time, dye concentration and temperature. The acid treated OPTP and MO saturated OPTP adsorbent were characterized based on Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The maximum adsorption of MO was observed at pH 6 and a contact time 120 min was sufficient to attain the equilibrium. The adsorption of MO onto treated OPTP best fit to Langmuir model and followed the pseudo second order kinetic model. Different thermodynamic parameters such as free energy, enthalpy, and entropy have been calculated and it was concluded that with increase in temperature adsorption increases, which indicates adsorption of MO onto OPTP was endothermic in nature and favourable with positive value of .H . The method can be applied to the removal of MO dyes in waste waters.

In clinical studies, drugs with hydrophobic characteristic usually reflect low bioavailability, poor drug absorption, and inability to achieve the therapeutic concentration in blood. The production of poor solubility drugs, in abundance, by pharmaceutical industries calls for an urgent need to find the alternatives for resolving the above mentioned shortcomings. Poor water solubility drugs loaded with polymeric micelle seem to be the best alternative to enhance drugs solubility and bioavailability. Polymeric micelle, formed by self-assembled of amphiphilic block copolymers in aqueous environment, functioned as solubilizing agent for hydrophobic drug. This review discusses the fundamentals of polymeric micelle as drug carrier through representative literature, and demonstrates some applications in various clinical trials. The structure, characteristic, and formation of polymeric micelle have been discussed firstly. Next, this manuscript focuses on the potential of polymeric micelles as drug vehicle in oral, transdermal routes, and anti-cancer agent. Several results from previous studies have been reproduced in this review in order to prove the efficacy of the micelles in delivering hydrophobic drugs. Lastly, future strategies to broaden the application of polymeric micelles in pharmaceutical industries have been highlighted.

Nanotechnology is an innovative area of science that includes the design, characterization, production, and application of materials, devices and systems by controlling shape and size at the nanometer scale (1-100 nm). Nanotechnology incorporation in cosmetic formulation is considered as the hottest and emerging technology available. Cosmetic manufacturers use nanoscale size ingredients to provide better UV protection, deeper skin penetration, long-lasting effects, increased color, finish quality, and many more. Micellar nanoparticles is one of the latest field applied in cosmetic products that becoming trending and widely commercialized in local and international markets. The ability of nanoemulsion system to form small micellar nanoparticles size with high surface area allowing to effectiveness of bioactive component transport onto the skin. Oil in water nanoemulsion is playing a major role as effective formulation in cosmetics such as make-up remover, facial cleanser, anti-aging lotion, sun-screens, and other water-based cosmetic formulations. The objective of this review is to critically discuss the properties, advantageous, and mechanism of micellar nanoparticles formation in nanoemulsion system. Therefore, present article introduce and discuss the specific benefits of nanoemulsion system in forming micellar nanoparticles for cosmetic formulation which become major factors for further development of micellar-based cosmetic segments.

The aim of this chapter is to review recent developments in the detection of potentially dangerous VOCs (VOCs) using various kinds of carbon-based nanocomposites. These VOCs include components of gasoline, benzene, toluene, xylene, tetrachloroethylene, etc., that have adverse effects on the health of humans as well as other living organisms. Carbon-based nanocomposites are now considered new and novel materials that provide high tensile strength as well as mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties that make them better and more promising candidates for the detection of potential hazardous VOCs. In addition, owing to the ease of fabrication and reduction, the low cost, and simple operation, carbon-based nanocomposites offer great potential for portable real-time medical diagnostics, in contrast to the conventional methods-based on cost and labor-extensive lab-bench instruments. A summary of recent information obtained using various VOCs with different carbon-based nanocomposites has been included in the discussion. Alongside the detection efficiency, their mode of operation under various parameters has been covered in detail.

Drug-induced photosensitivity of the skin is drawing increasing attention. In past few decades, photosensitivity has been reported with an array of drugs, and is now recognized as a noteworthy medical problem by clinicians, regulatory authorities and pharmaceutical industry. The photosensitivity is of two types i.e., phototoxicity and photoallergy. Phototoxic disorders have a high incidence, whereas photoallergic reactions are much less frequent in human population. Several hundred substances, chemicals, or drugs may invoke phototoxic and photoallergic reactions. In order to avoid photosensitive reactions, it is essential to understand the mechanism behind the photosensitizing properties of such substances before these drugs are introduced in clinical settings. Photosensitization is inter-related to photochemical reaction, through the knowledge of which the photosensitivity of a drug can be anticipated. This review highlights the current research status on photosensitizing drugs and its correlation to phototoxicity. Different mechanisms of photodegradation of photolabile drugs have also been discussed.

The revelation of the anticancer properties of cisplatin has inspired research into metal complexes for the treatment of cancer. Several second and third generation cisplatin analogues were developed with claims of good anticancer properties and reduced side effects. However, the persistence of some side effects and the resistance of cancer cells have tempted scientists to explore new metal complexes as anticancer drugs. Therefore, the approach of rational drug design has been extended to the development of non-platinum anticancer drugs, and a large number of such complexes have been developed. Iron complexes are of interest to inorganic medicinal chemists for the development of anticancer agents. The anticancer potency of iron complexes was first reported in ferrocenium picrate and ferrocenium trichloroacetate salts, and was attributed to their ability to form reactive oxygen species, leading to oxidative DNA damage. This review discusses the advances in iron complexes as anticancer agents. The aspects of the photocytotoxicity, redox activity and multinuclearity of anticancer iron complexes are discussed, in addition to discussing ferrocenyl derivatives and salen complexes. The legacy of nanotechnology and synergism in harnessing the potential of iron complexes is highlighted. Finally, the current challenges and future perspectives of iron complexes as anticancer agents are outlined.

Nowadays, microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) has received great attention for its potential in construction and geotechnical applications. This technique has been used in biocementation of sand, consolidation of soil, production of self-healing concrete or mortar, and removal of heavy metal ions from water. The products of MICP often have enhanced strength, durability, and self-healing ability. Utilization of the MICP technique can also increase sustainability, especially in the construction industry where a huge portion of the materials used is not sustainable. The presence of bacteria is essential for MICP to occur. Bacteria promote the conversion of suitable compounds into carbonate ions, change the microenvironment to favor precipitation of calcium carbonate, and act as precipitation sites for calcium carbonate crystals. Many bacteria have been discovered and tested for MICP potential. This paper reviews the bacteria used for MICP in some of the most recent studies. Bacteria that can cause MICP include ureolytic bacteria, non-ureolytic bacteria, cyanobacteria, nitrate reducing bacteria, and sulfate reducing bacteria. The most studied bacterium for MICP over the years is Sporosarcina pasteurii. Other bacteria from Bacillus species are also frequently investigated. Several factors that affect MICP performance are bacterial strain, bacterial concentration, nutrient concentration, calcium source concentration, addition of other substances, and methods to distribute bacteria. Several suggestions for future studies such as CO2 sequestration through MICP, cost reduction by using plant or animal wastes as media, and genetic modification of bacteria to enhance MICP have been put forward.

Hibiscus sabdariffa L. (Roselle) seeds are rich in proteins, carbohydrates and unsaturated fatty acids, and are a good source of minerals and antioxidants. Supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extraction was applied for extraction of oil from Roselle seed at temperatures of 40 °C to 80 °C and pressures of 20 MPa to 30 MPa. The effects of temperature and pressure on the extraction yield and solubility of oil were determined. Process optimization was carried out using response surface methodology (RSM). A particle size of 300 μm, SC-CO2 flow rate of 5 mL/min and extraction time of 180 min were held constant throughout this study. The overall oil yield increased as pressure and temperature was increased, while a reverse effect was observed at higher temperatures. The optimum extraction conditions for Roselle seed oil corresponded to a pressure of 30 MPa and temperature of 40 °C. According to the analysis of variance (ANOVA), the coefficient of determination R2 for oil yield and gamma tocopherol concentration were 0.9723 and 0.9754, respectively, indicating a good correlation and agreement between the experimental and predicted values.

Reverse micelles extraction of erythromycin and amoxicillin were carried out using the novel Sophorolipids biosurfactant. By replacing commonly used chemical surfactants with biosurfactant, reverse micelle extraction can be further improved in terms of environmental friendliness and sustainability. A central composite experimental design was used to investigate the effects of solution pH, KCl concentration, and sophorolipids concentration on the reverse micelle extraction of antibiotics. The most significant factor identified during the reverse micelle extraction of both antibiotics is the pH of aqueous solutions. Best forward extraction performance for erythromycin was found at feed phase pH of approximately 8.0 with low KCl and sophorolipids concentrations. Optimum recovery of erythromycin was obtained at stripping phase pH around 10.0 and with low KCl concentration. On the other hand, best forward extraction performance for amoxicillin was found at feed phase pH around 3.5 with low KCl concentration and high sophorolipids concentration. Optimum recovery of erythromycin was obtained at stripping phase pH around 6.0 with low KCl concentration. Both erythromycin and amoxicillin were found to be very sensitive toaqueous phase pH and can be easily degraded outside of their stable pH ranges.

In the present research, we study the thermodynamic parameters of ternary system of two different sugars, i.e., (a)D(-)glucose+lysozyme+water and (b)maltose+lysozyme+water. It has been done at various temperatures (293.15, 303.15, 313.15 and 323.15 K) and concentrations of sugars. The apparent molal volume and apparent molal compressibilities have been calculated for these systems. The partial molal volume of D(-)glucose and maltose has also been evaluated in aqueous lysozyme solution. We have made an attempt to examine transfer volume of the said solutes from water to aqueous lysozyme solution. Interaction between sugars and water molecules is expected to create polar environment, which helps to increase the hydrophobic interactions in proteins, thus stabilizing the protein.

The direct determination of toxic metal ions, in environmental samples, is difficult because of the latter's presence in trace concentration in association with complex matrices, thereby leading to insufficient sensitivity and selectivity of the methods used. The simultaneous removal of the matrix and preconcentration of the metal ions, through solid phase extraction, serves as the promising solution. The mechanism involved in solid phase extraction (SPE) depends on the nature of the sorbent and analyte. Thus, SPE is carried out by means of adsorption, ion exchange, chelation, ion pair formation, and so forth. As polymeric supports, the commercially available Amberlite resins have been found very promising for designing chelating matrices due to its good physical and chemical properties such as porosity, high surface area, durability and purity. This review presents an overview of the various works done on the modification of Amberlite XAD resins with the objective of making it an efficient sorbent. The methods of modifications which are generally based on simple impregnation, sorption as chelates and chemical bonding have been discussed. The reported results, including the preconcentration limit, the detection limit, sorption capacity, preconcentration factors etc., have been reproduced.

Chemically oxidized pineapple fruit peel biomass has been used as a biosorbent for Cd(II) and Pb(II) removal from aqueous solutions. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy techniques were used to characterize the treated pineapple fruit peel. The biosorption efficiency of pineapple fruit peel for Cd(II) and Pb(II) was greatly enhanced after chemical oxidation probably due to introduction of carboxylic and hydroxyl groups onto the biosorbent surface. Biosorption kinetics for both metals was well described by pseudo-second-order kinetic equation and intraparticle film diffusion. Langmuir, Freundlich, and Temkin isotherm models were applied to the biosorption equilibrium data and best results were obtained with Langmuir isotherm model. Maximum monolayer biosorption capacity was found to be 42.10 and 28.55 mg g−1 for Cd(II) and Pb(II), respectively. Thermodynamic study indicates that the biosorption was exothermic and the spontaneity of the process decreases with the ...

Background Essential oils are liquid extracts from aromatic plants, which have numerous applications in multiple industries. There are a variety of methods used for the extraction of essential oils, with each method exhibiting certain advantages and determining the biological and physicochemical properties of the extracted oils. Essential oils from different plant species contain more than 200 constituents which are comprised of volatile and non-volatile components. The application of essential oils as antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and anti-viral agents is due to their effective and efficient properties, inter alia. Method Several advanced (supercritical fluid extraction, subcritical extraction liquid, solvent-free microwave extraction) and conventional (hydrodistillation, steam distillation, hydrodiffusion, solvent extraction) methods have been discussed for the extraction of essential oils. Advanced methods are considered as the most promising extraction techniques due to less extraction time, low energy consumption, low solvent used and less carbon dioxide emission. Conclusion This manuscript reviewed the major research studies in the field and discussed several research findings on the chemical composition of essential oils, methods of oil extraction, and application of these oils in pharmaceutical and therapeutic fields. These essential oils can be used as anticancer, antimicrobial, antiviral, and as skin permeation enhancer agents.

This article discusses the application of mixed reverse micelles in downstream processing of antibiotics. Purification and recovery processes for antibiotics in downstream processing are major expenses, about 70% of the total cost of production, giving them a significant impact on manufacturing cost. Moreover, there are a number of challenges and difficulties in the separation process requirements for antibiotics, since the mixture is quite complex, with broth, hazardous solvents, by-products, intermediate material, and impurities; in addition, antibiotics are easy to denature. Therefore, the development of effective separation techniques is required to produce high-purity of biomaterials. The use of reverse micelles is thought to be among the most promising due to the process's high selectivity and efficiency. Most studies on reverse micelle extraction technology have been performed by using anionic surfactant sodium bis (2-ethyl-1-hexyl) sulfosuccinate (AOT). However, the activities of antibiotics hoste...

Dielectric properties of materials play a significant role in design of microwave assisted processing system. This paper is focused on the dielectric properties of ε-caprolactone (ε-cap) which is the monomer for the biodegradable polymer, Poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL). The dielectric properties of ε-cap were measured across a wide range of frequencies (0.1 GHz5.0 GHz) and temperatures (20-150oC). Then the measured dielectric properties data was modelled using Debye model in order to relate quantitatively the dielectric properties to microwave heating mechanisms. The analysis carried out gives a clear picture of interaction of ε-cap with microwave energy and its heating mechanism in microwave assisted polymerisation process. This study concluded that microwave heating mechanism of the ε-cap in the measured range may be dominated by the dipole reorientation.

Catechin that is known for its antioxidant, antihypertension and anticancer properties can be obtained from Areca catechu. In this study, accelerated water extraction (AWE) method was used to extract catechin from A. catechu seeds. The extraction parameters tested were temperature (120, 140 and 160 °C), static time (5, 10 and 15 min) and static cycle (1, 2 and 3 cycles). A. catechu extracts were analysed using liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry to quantify the amount of catechin. Highest oil yield of 390.00-mg oil/g sample was obtained at temperature of 140 °C, 15 min of extraction time and 3 cycles. On the other hand, the highest catechin amount of 0.0716-mg catechin/g sample was obtained at 140 °C, 10 min and 2 cycles. The effect of extraction temperature was studied using the second-order kinetic model, and it showed good regression coefficient of more than 0.99. It suggests that the model could be applied to describe the extraction of catechin from A. catechu seeds. Based on the model, the initial extraction rate, the equilibrium extraction capacity and the extraction rate coefficient were evaluated to explain the AWE process at temperatures ranging from 120 to 160 °C. © 2014 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This work was aimed to characterize ash-rich adsorbent derived from palm oil mill effluent sludge (POME sludge) for heavy metals removal from aqueous solution. The adsorbents were characterized according to specific surface area, surface morphology and elemental compositions. Sludge adsorbent exhibits high adsorption capacity for both copper(II) and lead(II), while its ash derivative demonstrates comparable removal of lead(II). Results indicate the important role of sludge ash in the adsorption of heavy metals. The study suggests the potential use of ash-rich POME sludge for industrial wastewater treatment.

Supercritical fluid extraction of α-tocopherol and β-carotenoids from crude palm oil offers an excellent method over other existing conventional methods. Supercritical fluid extraction was developed in the early and mid-1980s to reduce the use of harmful organic solvent in the laboratory. The present paper reviews the applications of supercritical fluid extraction technology in extraction of palm oil using CO2and R 134a fluids. Carbon dioxide is non- toxic, having low critical pressure (74 bar) and temperature (32°C) which minimize the thermal degradation of product but it has a limited dissolving power for solutes of high polarity and high molecular weight in the supercritical state and it also requires higher pressure of upto 500 bar and this high pressure operation requires high operation cost and high capital cost. R134a is an alternative low pressure, non-reactive, non-flammable, non-toxic, non-ozone depleting and has comparable solvent properties as that of CO2. R-134a needs only its temperature or pressure to be controlled in order to control the conditions of extraction or product isolation. This allows simple control of the process.

This work was aimed to evaluate the adsorptive nature of palm oil mill effluent sludge ash for methylene blue dye removal in aqueous solution. Two types of palm oil mill effluent sludge collected from different treatment ponds, i.e. anaerobic and biopolishing were burnt to ash, and treated with 5 M HCl. The treated and untreated adsorbents were characterized for surface area and morphology. Methylene blue dye adsorption was carried out in laboratory at room temperature, and the adsorption data were analyzed based on equilibrium isotherm and kinetic models. The surface area of ash-adsorbents was found to increase more than 12 times after HCl treatment. The highest surface area recorded was 218 m2/g. Equilibrium data of ash-adsorbents obeyed Langmuir isotherm to linear approximation suggesting the monolayer uptake of methylene blue dye. The highest maximum uptake of 50.7 mg/g methylene blue dye (50% removal) was demonstrated by HCl-treated biopolishing ash-adsorbent at initial concentration of 200 m...

The work was aimed to investigate the effect of heat treatment of manure-compost-based activated carbons on the adsorption of copper from aqueous solution. Activated carbons were characterized according to physical structures and surface functional groups. All equilibrium data of activated carbons formerly treated at different temperatures obeyed Langmuir model to linear approximation. Results showed that copper ions favorably adsorbed onto the mesopores at lower equilibrium concentrations and subsequently changed to the micropores at higher equilibrium concentrations. It was found that the increase in electron density upon heat treatment offered higher tendency for the uniform amount of protons to occupy the surface sites. Analysis of Scatchard plots suggested that the affinity driven by the mesopores toward copper ions was stronger than that of the micropores.

The preliminary study of the reverse micelles system with addition of TWEEN 85 into AOT-isooctane for Amoxicillin extraction was conducted to investigate the behaviour of the mixed micelles mixtures. It was found that the presence of non-ionic surfactant in AOT-iso-octane mixtures could enhance the solubilisation of antibiotic in the organic phase and it shows a better performance rather than the usage of a single surfactant. The standard Gibbs energy of surface adsorption Δad o G, is identified as -78.21 kJ/mole and the amount of standard Gibbs free energy of micelle formation Δmic 0 G is -5.514 kJ/mole. The critical micelle concentration of mixed reverse micelles was decreased drastically when TWEEN 85 is combined with AOT-iso-octane solution and this indicates that the amount of surfactant required to form micelle is extremely low and it is more economic as compared to the usage of AOT and TWEEN 85 alone.

In this study, supercritical carbon dioxide is chosen for the extraction and purification of omega-3 fatty acids from Hevea brasiliensis (rubber) oil because this method is environmental friendly and the extracted oil has improved nutritional and functional values. In addition, extraction using this method also can prevent organic solvent residual inside the extracted oil. During the extraction using supercritical carbon dioxide, the oil yield is increased with the increase of temperature and pressure. The best operating condition is pressure of 30 MPa, and temperature of 80 C giving 21.4714% oil yield. The analysis of fatty acids composition is using gas-chromatography. The extracted rubber seeds oil is converted to fatty acids methyl esters (FAME) make it more accessible for chromatogram analysis. From the analysis, the omega-3 fatty acids inside rubber seeds oil especially alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is the highest compare to soybean oil and olive oil. Beside this, rubber seeds oil also contains oleic acid which is omega-9 and linoleic acid is omega-6. This is the reason rubber seeds oil can be regard as oleic-linolenic seed oil. Alpha-linolenic acid is the precursor to convert polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Oleic acid (Omega-9) has the potential for heart protection and cancer prevention but still in the state of prove. On the other hands, the linoleic acid, the element of omega-6 has the benefits to treat to treat arthritis and autoimmune disease. Therefore, rubber seeds oil has very high potential to be developed into difference products in difference industries such as pharmaceutical, cosmetics, oleochemical and foods.

The formulation of omega-3 emulsion using rubber (Hevea Brasiliensis) seed oil based on the best performance of the emulsion in terms of higher viscosity, smaller droplet size, lower moisture content and slightly acidic pH value supported by degree of creaming in varying the type and composition of emulsifier used. Rubber seed oil contains significant value of alpha-linolenic acid which plays an important role in maintaining human health. Therefore, formulation of rubber seed oil emulsion is important to become a new source of omega-3 emulsion instead of fish oil. Rubber seed oil was mixed with distilled water and nonionic emulsifier which were lecithin and span 80 by homogenizer. From the analysis conducted, the best formulation was the emulsion with 50% of distilled water, 6% of lecithin and 47% of rubber seed oil.

The objective of this study is to verify potential of various types of microorganisms during spray drying and non-refrigerated storage that can be enhanced substantially by selecting suitable protective colloids. Four selected probiotics tested are Lactbacillus plantarum B13 and B18, which are the bacteria probiotics and Kluyveromyces lactis and Saccharomyces blouradii, non-bacteria probiotics. Two levels of experiment occur starting with formulation study of encapsulation agent followed by the viability study of different probiotics after spray dry and two weeks nonrefrigerated storage. The formulation of 30% of gum Arabic, 15% of gelatin and 45% of coconut oil can homogenize well at least for two hours and can produce acceptable dried product (below 4% of moisture content) at low outlet temperature (70℃ -75℃). K. lactis, S. blouradii gives 2.57% and 2.4% of viability percentage after spray drying process and 25.84% and 2.04% after two weeks nonrefrigerated storage respectively. The colonies of non-probiotics bacteria after both conditions are between 1010 and 106 cfu/mL which is among the accepted level for industrial application. However, the survival of probiotics in a spray-dried form during non-refrigerated storage is higher at low of moisture content compared to others.

The revelation of the anticancer properties of cisplatin has inspired research into metal complexes for the treatment of cancer. Several second and third generation cisplatin analogues were developed with claims of good anticancer properties and reduced side effects. However, the persistence of some side effects and the resistance of cancer cells have tempted scientists to explore new metal complexes as anticancer drugs. Therefore, the approach of rational drug design has been extended to the development of non-platinum anticancer drugs, and a large number of such complexes have been developed. Iron complexes are of interest to inorganic medicinal chemists for the development of anticancer agents. The anticancer potency of iron complexes was first reported in ferrocenium picrate and ferrocenium trichloroacetate salts, and was attributed to their ability to form reactive oxygen species, leading to oxidative DNA damage. This review discusses the advances in iron complexes as anticancer agents. The aspects of the photocytotoxicity, redox activity and multinuclearity of anticancer iron complexes are discussed, in addition to discussing ferrocenyl derivatives and salen complexes. The legacy of nanotechnology and synergism in harnessing the potential of iron complexes is highlighted. Finally, the current challenges and future perspectives of iron complexes as anticancer agents are outlined.

The kinetic reverse micelle extraction of penicillin G was studied using the new surfactant; dioleyl phosphoric acid. Studies were conducted for model development on the kinetic partitioning of penicillin G and for investigation of mechanism governing the forward and backward transfers of penicillin G in reverse micelle system. Results were interpreted in terms of a two-film theory for flat interface. The extraction in this system was found to be controlled by interface solubilization and the diffusion of the penicillin G in the aqueous phase boundary layer. The values mass transfer coefficient of forward extraction, KLA increased from 0.2859 × 107 to 0.6115 × 107 as the aqueous pH was increased from 5 to 8. While as dioleyl phosphoric acid concentration increased from 5 mM to 10 mM, the value of KLA and forward extraction equilibrium partition coefficient, mf were increased from 0.1285 × 107 to 0.8971 × 107 and 0.4954 to 1.40085 respectively. However further increased dioleyl phosphoric acid concentration up to 25 mM the value of KLA and mf were declined because the organic solution becomes saturated with dioleyl phosphoric acid molecules. From the experimental result it was found that the transfer rate and efficiency was reduced dramatically at higher concentration of salt and an increase of penicillin G concentration the driving force between charge polar heads of dioleyl phosphoric acid and opposite charge of penicillin G molecules.

Reverse micelle extraction has received considerable attention in recent years due to its ability to selectively solubilise solutes from an aqueous phase, and in the case of biomolecules to maintain their biological activities. The apparent success of research on protein extraction from the aqueous phase using reverse micelle provides motivation to study the solubilisation of antibiotic. The objective of this study is to investigate the extraction of antibiotic (penicillin G is chosen as model antibiotic) from aqueous solution (forward extraction) and from the reverse micelle to a new aqueous solution (backward extraction). Sodium di(2-ethylhexyl)sulfosuccinate (AOT) is chosen as the surfactant and isooctane as the organic solvent. The UV-Vis spectrophotometer is used to determine the mass of penicillin G in solution after the extraction process. The extraction is expected to be influenced by the initial penicillin G concentration, the salt type and concentration in the aqueous phase, pH, and surfactant concentration. It is expected that as penicillin is an interfacially active compound that will interacts with AOT surfactant, the interfacial association will be dependent on both pH and surfactant concentration.

The stability of roselle anthocyanins was investigated under three different heat treatments (60, 80 and 98C). The dry red powder from roselle calyces was produced using spray-drying technique using four different encapsulating agents, i.e., maltodextrin, gum arabic, a combination of maltodextrin and gum arabic, and soluble starch. The four types of matrices increased the half-life of the pigments during heat treatment, especially at 98C (P < 0.05), compared with the roselle extract as the control. Heat treatment results showed that the combination of maltodextrin and gum arabic had the lowest degradation kinetic rates at 60 and 80C. Arrhenius parameters' results further confirmed that the degradation of anthocyanins was strongly dependent on the operating temperatures during heat treatment. In this study, all encapsulating agents, except the soluble starch, largely elongated the half-life of roselle anthocyanins compared with the nonencapsulated anthocyanins. A spectrum of natural, red-hue primer colorants is derived from roselle plant extracts, which is substantially free of alkaloids, enzymes, aroma or solvent residuals, and is microencapsulated to ensure good stability and shelf life. This study measured the thermal stability and suitability of the microencapsulated natural colorants. The colorants are for functional use in the food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and other industries.

Extraction of penicillin G from an aqueous phase into an organic phase containing AOT reverse micelles has been investigated. The extraction is influenced by the initial penicillin G concentration, the salt type and concentration in the aqueous phase, pH, and surfactant concentration. The results show that penicillin is an interfacially active compound that interacts with AOT, with the interfacial association being dependent on both pH and surfactant concentration. When the concentration ratio [P]aq/[S] is high precipitation of the penicillin occurs. The distribution coefficient favours transfer of the penicillin into the reverse micelles at moderate AOT concentrations. The distribution coefficient at infinite dilution, K∞, is shown to be a function of both pH and surfactant concentration; similar trends in the value of K∞ were observed at different pH values; K∞ decreases as the surfactant concentration is increased. Reverse micelle formation affects the volume of water transferred into the organic phase; from measurements of the water transferred, the size of the reverse micelles was estimated to be about 3 nm and the number of AOT molecules per reverse micelle about 360.

Dyes are an important class of organic pollutants and are well known for their hazardous effects on aquatic life in general and human beings in particular. In order to reduce the negative effects of dye contaminated wastewater on humans and the environment, the wastewater must be treated carefully before discharge into main streams. Advances in science and technology have led to the evolution of several techniques for the removal of dyes from industrial and domestic effluents. In this review, the more recent methods for the removal of dyes from water and wastewater have been discussed. Wastewater treatment techniques such as adsorption, oxidation, flocculation–coagulation, membrane filtration and biological treatment have been highlighted. In addition, efforts were made to review all the available techniques and recently published studies from 2010–2014. Furthermore, the performance and special features of these technologies have been summarised. Advantages and limitations of each technique are also presented. A thorough literature survey revealed that chemical oxidation, adsorption, and biological treatments have been the most frequently investigated techniques for dye removal over the past few years.

This study aims to evaluate the adsorptive properties of oil palm empty fruit bunch for the removal of cationic pollutants in water. The untreated and hydrochloric acid-treated empty fruit bunches were characterized based on pH of adsorbent, specific surface area and surface functional groups. The adsorbents were then used to challenge varying concentrations of methylene blue dye and copper (II) in aqueous solution. Results show that the specific surface area of empty fruit bunch decreased upon the treatment with hydrochloric acid. The untreated adsorbent displays a higher equilibrium removal of the target pollutants due to its higher specific surface area of 28.4 m2/g. The maximum removal were recorded as 0.103 and 0.075 mmol/g for methylene blue and copper (II), respectively. Oil palm empty fruit bunch is a promising candidate for the removal of cationic pollutants in aqueous solution.

This study was aimed to evaluate the dielectric properties of the reactants mixture at varying temperatures and concentrations for microwave-assisted adsorbent preparation, and to study the adsorptive characteristics of the resultant adsorbents. Palm kernel shell (PKS) was used as the precursor while potassium hydroxide (KOH) was employed as the activator. Different concentrations of KOH solution and ratios of KOH:PKS of 0:1, 0.5:1, 1:1, and 2:1 were prepared, and the measurement of the dielectric properties was performed using open-ended coaxial probe method. Results indicate that the relative dielectric constant, εr' is inversely proportional to the frequency, f. The trends of relaxation time, τ and penetration depth, DP with respect to the frequency and temperature were also reported. Adsorbent prepared using a higher ratio of KOH shows a greater removal of methylene blue. Dielectric properties are imperative especially for selecting suitable operating conditions and in designing the applicator for effective preparation of adsorbent.

Over recent years, there has been an explosive growth of sample preparation techniques. Sample preparation is in most cases meant to be the isolation online or offline concentration of some components of interest or target analytes. Solid phase extraction (SPE) is a very popular technique nowadays in sample preparation. The principal is quite similar with liquid- liquid extraction (LLE) which involves partition of solutes between two phases. But, there are some differences between them and some benefits and limitations of difference types of SPE technique like presented in this paper.