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High salt content is one of the major problems for stewed products. To help address this issue, the effect of salt reduction on water migration in stewed ducks was investigated through diverse approaches, including water activity (Aw) and water-holding capacity (WHC) assay, as well as low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observation. Our results showed that Aw value remained stable, while centrifugal loss decreased, and cooking loss increased significantly (p 0.05). The analysis of NMR indicated that, during the marinating stage, the proportion of immobilized water increased from 86.86%-89.66% (sodium chloride group) and 90.51% (salt-reduced group), respectively. After 2 h, the free water content became 0, and then became stable until the end of marinating. In the stewing stage, at the beginning 20 min, relaxation time of immobilized water decreased to about 35 ms and the ratio of immobilized water significantly reduced (p 0.05) by 5.38% (sodium chloride group) and 5.95% (salt-reduced group), respectively. Free water peak was detected upon stewing of 10 min, and 20 min later, there was no significant difference in the proportion of free water (p 0.05). In general, no significance was observed in water behavior and microstructure of stewed duck meat between the salt reduction group and sodium chloride group. In addition, SEM analysis revealed that marinating could expand the muscle fiber gap to accommodate more immobilized water. However, the fiber was looser at the initial stage of stewing and then became more compact. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This work demonstrates potentially feasible to produce salt-reduced duck products.

Salt is a necessary condition to produce a surimi product that is based on the gelation of salt-soluble myofibrillar proteins. Recently, there has been a growing concern among consumers to consume healthy foods due to the threat of several chronic diseases caused by an unhealthy diet. Methods of reducing salt content out of concern for health issues caused by excessive sodium intake may affect the gel properties of surimi, as can many health-oriented food additives. Several studies have investigated different strategies to improve the health characteristics of surimi products without decreasing gel properties. This review reports recent developments in this area and how the gel properties were successfully maintained under reduced-salt conditions and the use of additives. This review of recent studies presents a great deal of progress made in the health benefits of surimi and can be used as a reference for further development in the surimi product processing industry.

Health concerns have motivated salt reduction on diverse foods. Salt in processed meat usually reach high levels, and its reduction is not an easy task, due to its preservative action and expected sensory characteristics in them. Meat industry is looking for alternative solutions for both salt reduction and replacement. The curing time needed to reach the required salt content in meat products can be reduced by the application of ultrasound. Ultrasound technology has been applied for brining, marinating, tumbling, and cooking, with promising results as a useful strategy to reduce the salt content in meat products, such as dry-cured ham, bacon and chicken breast. However, ultrasound parameters should be optimized for each meat product, because structure and composition are diverse among products and the US effects be different. The purpose of this review is to highlight and summarize recent studies on ultrasound application to obtain low salt meat products.

This paper investigates whether the partial substitution of fat with soy flakes and the partial substitution of common salt with two commercial blends (Aranca salt™ and Novosal salt™) affected the final dry matter, proximate composition, peroxide index, malondialdehyde values and lactic acid bacteria counts of dry fermented sausages. Six experimental batches were manufactured. Both salt type and fat source affected to the fat amount, the protein content, the collagen content, the peroxide index and the microbial counts and significant interactions between the main effects were found for all those variables. The malondialdehyde values were affected by fat source but not for salt type. In general, soy addition decreased protein content and peroxide values, increased lactic acid bacteria counts and malondialdehyde values and their effect on fat content depended on the used salt.

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of yeast cultures (Candida zeylanoides and Debaryomyces hansenii) isolated from traditionally dry fermented Turkish sucuks, on some physicochemical and microbiological properties of the product. Eight different batches of the sucuks were produced by the inoculation of yeast and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) cultures (Lactobacillus curvatus, Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus sakei) in different combinations. The sucuks were ripened for 12 days and analyzed at 1st, 6th, and 12th days of ripening. Percent moisture content, pH, water activity (a(w)) and residual nitrite values of the sucuk inoculated with the yeast cultures were higher at the end of the ripening. The use of yeast cultures decreased hardness, gumminess, and chewiness values of the sucuk while increased adhesiveness values. Major volatile groups were aldehydes, terpenes, and sulphur compounds in the sucuk samples. The most noticeable results were for sensory properties of the sucuk that were positively improved by the yeast cultures. Erciyes University, Scientific Research Projects Coordination UnitErciyes University [FBA-10-3330, FBD-10-3347] This study was supported by Erciyes University, Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit (FBA-10-3330 and FBD-10-3347).

This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of salt intake restriction on overactive bladder (OAB) symptoms in patients with excessive salt intake. Patients received a brochure on nutritional guidance regarding salt intake reduction and received health education every 4 weeks for 12 weeks. Data from overactive bladder symptom score (OABSS) questionnaires and frequency volume charts (FVCs) were evaluated. The daily salt intake was estimated by determining the urinary sodium and creatinine concentrations using spot urine samples. Of the 98 patients included, 71 (72.4%) successfully restricted their daily salt intake after 12 weeks (salt restricted [R] group), while 27 (27.6%) did not (salt non-restricted [N-R] group). The scores to each OABSS question and the resulting total score improved significantly in the R group; however, the individual scores remained unchanged and the total score increased in the N-R group. The FVC data indicated improved voided volumes in the R group as compared to in the N-R group. Ultimately, 17 (23.9%) patients in the R group no longer fulfilled the OAB diagnostic criteria after salt intake reduction. Thus, salt intake reduction improved urinary symptoms in patients with OAB and may be a therapeutic option for OAB in patients with excessive daily salt intakes.

This study was investigated to develop healthy gluten-free chicken nuggets with less salt content and more nutrients using white button mushroom and eggplant flour. Nine nugget formulations, including three full-chicken nuggets with salt content [1% (control), 0.75%, and 0.5% w/w], and six chicken–white button mushroom (80: 20) nuggets with salt content (0.75%, and 0.5% w/w) and eggplant flour (0, 2.5% and 5% w/w) were examined. Physical properties on cooking yield, shrinkage, released fluid, firmness, and color scales (L*, a*, and b*) were analyzed. While sensory characteristics were evaluated using a 9-point hedonic scale. Reducing salt from 1 to 0.5% negatively affected the physical properties and sensory attributes of full-chicken formulations. There were no significant physical properties changes, except for color between full-chicken and chicken–mushroom nuggets. At the same time, their sensory characteristics were comparable. The addition of eggplant flour improved the physical parameters in reduced-salt nuggets and texture acceptability but deteriorated other sensory attributes. In conclusion, the addition of 2.5% eggplant flour could reduce about 25% salt content in the chicken nugget formulation with 20% white button mushroom as a meat extender.

Chicken nugget extended with white button mushroom was developed by reducing the salt content and enhancing the quality with eggplant powder. A total of two independent variables, including salt reduction (0−40%) and eggplant powder (0−5%), were studied using response surface methodology. Physical properties on cooking yield, shrinkage, firmness, and color (L*, a*, b*) values, while sensory analyses on color, flavor, texture, and overall acceptability were evaluated. The results showed that the two variables had significant linear, quadratic, and interaction effects on the nugget characteristics. The eggplant powder had a greater impact on L*, a*, b* color values. The cooking yield increased at a low salt reduction (

Purpose The World Health Organization recommends reduction of salt intake to Methods The study population was made of 1270 children and adolescents. Estimates of salt consumption and iodine intake were obtained by measuring 24 h urinary sodium and iodine excretion. Results The iodine intake increased gradually across quartiles of salt consumption independently of sex, age and body weight (p 10.2 g/day). We estimated that approximately 65–73% of the total iodine intake was derived from food and 27–35% from iodized salt and that iodized salt made actually only 20% of the total salt intake. Conclusion In this pediatric population, in face of an elevated average salt consumption, the use of iodized salt was still insufficient to ensure an adequate iodine intake, in particular among teenagers. In the perspective of a progressive reduction of total salt intake, the health institutions should continue to support iodoprophylaxis, in the context of the national strategies for salt reduction. In order for these policies to be successful, in addition to educational campaigns, it is needed that the prescriptions contained in the current legislation on iodoprophylaxis are made compelling through specific enforcement measures for all the involved stakeholders.

BACKGROUND Reduction of the salt (NaCl) content in typical Italian dry-cured ham is intended to reduce sodium dietary intake to meet World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations for the prevention of serious diseases. This reduction is a complex issue because of the multiple roles that salt plays in the product. Hams that were processed to obtain a final product with target salt levels (hams with reduced salt concentration and controls) were analyzed using chemical parameters (salt, moisture, fat, and proteolysis indexes). Their sensory properties were described by a trained panel and 87 consumers evaluated the impact of salt reduction on their liking for the products. RESULTS The dry-cured hams under investigation are representative of Italian dry-cured hams, which are considered to be low and medium to high in terms of salt content. Consistent with the role of salt in proteolytic enzymes inhibition, there was an increase in the proteolysis index in fully matured dry-cured hams with reduced salt content. Salt level affected saltiness perception but also texture, color, and, to a lesser extent, flavor intensity in matured dry-cured hams. On average, reduced-salt dry-cured hams resulted in increased consumer liking. However, the resulting three consumer segments (37%, 27%, and 36% of the consumer cohort, respectively), differed in the acceptability ranking given to reduced-salt hams and controls. CONCLUSION The tested reduction in salt content, besides improving the nutritional profile of dry-cured ham, was effective in increasing consumers' acceptance. These results were useful for exploring the effect of reducing salt concentration on consumer liking for dry-cured hams. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

High dietary salt (NaCl) intake is a global health concern which leads to various chronic diseases; hence, the reduction of salt content in foods has been a high demand in the food industry. Inhomogeneous salt distribution is a promising strategy for salt reduction. This study investigated the effect of inhomogeneous salt distribution using salt edible coating on the physiochemical and sensory attributes of beef frankfurter sausages. Results demonstrated that this method significantly reduced the salt content in frankfurter sausages by 60–81% without affecting the consumers’ perception of saltiness intensity. Among the coated samples, 7.5% and 10% salt coating samples showed the best performance on the product quality. However, the problems associated with high cooking loss and hard texture of the salt-coated sausages need to be further addressed. This research has potentially developed a new method for manufacture of salt-reduced food.

Meat samples (Longissimus dorsi) were processed using an ultrasonic (US) probe system (20 kHz) and a US bath (33 kHz), in brine solutions of 15% NaCl or NaCl/KCl. Selected quality parameters, namely hardness (Warner&ndash, Bratzler shear force, WBSF), secondary lipid oxidation products (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, TBARs) and total colour difference (TCD) were analysed at day 0 and day 60. Inoculated E. coli and L. innocua cells, total viable counts and lactic acid bacteria were also monitored for 60 days on meat stored at 4 and 10 &deg, C. US brining could achieve a 25% sodium reduction in a shorter processing time. No changes were observed for WBSF and TBARs values, noticeable colour differences (&Delta, &Epsilon, &gt, 5) were measured in US-treated samples at the end of storage. Whilst no differences were observed in the levels of inoculated and spoilage bacteria on the meat surface, a significant reduction in E. coli in the brine subjected to US treatment indicates the potential of US as a hurdle technology to prevent cross contamination during meat processing. These results suggest that US processing, in combination with KCl, could assist current sodium reduction strategies improving processing time. In addition, the potential effects for decontamination of brining tanks increasing the shelf-life of the brine and preventing processing losses are highlighted.

Nowadays, consumers are increasingly concerned about nutrition and health issues. “Syglino of Monemvasia” is a traditional Greek cooked and smoked, sliced pork meat product. Although this is a nutritious food, its consumption should be done in moderation due to the pickling process of its preparation. This product was thus here optimized to contain half salt (NaCl) amount and its microbial stability and shelf life was then assessed in comparison to the already available commercial product. For this, the total viable counts (TVCs) and some critical specific spoilage associations were enumerated at each product type during vacuum incubation at four different temperatures (0, 5, 10, and 15 °C). The alterations in pH, aw, color, and some other crucial sensory attributes of each product were also periodically monitored. The new low-salt product was found to remain microbiologically stable under refrigerated vacuum storage for approximately two weeks, being finally spoiled by Brochothrix thermosphacta grown above 107 CFU/g, ultimately resulting in the deterioration of taste, odor, and overall appearance of the product, and thus leading to its subsequent organoleptic rejection. Despite its limited shelf life, the 50% NaCl-reduced “Syglino” could be released in the local market provided that the cooling chain is maintained throughout its distribution (≤5 °C) and at the same time consumers are willing to accept its milder taste. Although salt replacers could have been used to improve its flavor and at the same time increase its shelf life, the product here developed without the use of such alternatives will hopefully contribute to the taste training of its consumers for less salt in their diet, keeping in parallel its clean label with no added preservatives and other food additives., Graphical abstract Image 1, Ready-to-eat meats, Salt reduction, Vacuum incubation, Microbial spoilage, Storage temperature, Shelf life.

Highlights • Thirty percent reduction in population salt intake by 2025 is recommended by WHO. • South Africa introduced mandatory maximum sodium limits in processed foods in 2016. • A countrywide impact evaluation assessed change in salt intake after two years. • Salt intake measured using 24hr Na excretion dropped by 1.15 g per day. • Ongoing evaluation is necessary as more stringent targets were implemented in 2019., South Africa implemented legislation in June 2016 mandating maximum sodium (Na) levels in processed foods. A pre-post impact evaluation assessed whether the interim legislative approach reduced salt intake and blood pressure. Baseline Na intake was assessed in a nested cohort of the WHO Study on global AGEing and adult health (WHO-SAGE) Wave 2 (Aug-Dec 2015). 24-hour urine samples were collected in a random subsample (n = 1,299; of which n = 750 were considered valid (volume ≥ 300 mL and creatinine ≥ 4 mmol/day (women) or ≥ 6 mmol/day (men))). Follow-up urine samples were collected in Wave 3 (Jun 2018-Jun 2019), with replacements included for those lost to follow-up (n = 1,189; n = 548 valid). In those aged 18 − 49y, median salt intake was 7.8 (4.7, 12.0) g/day in W2 (n = 274), remaining similar in the W3 sample (7.7 (4.9, 11.3) g salt/day (n = 92); P = 0.569). In older adults (50 + y), median salt intake was 5.8 (4.0, 8.5) g/day (n = 467) in W2, and 6.0 (4.0, 8.6) g/day (n = 455) in W3 (P = 0.721). Controlling for differences in background characteristics, overall salt intake dropped by 1.15 g/day (P = 0.028). 24hr urinary Na concentrations from a countrywide South African sample suggest that salt intakes have dropped during the interim phase of mandatory sodium legislation. Further measurement of population level salt intake following stricter Na targets, enforced from June 2019, is necessary.

Increased consumption of sodium is considered as the leading cause of cardiovascular disease and hypertension. Processed foods like bakery products are considered as the main source of sodium intake. Regarding the high consumption ratio of wheat bread, it is counted as the main contributor of sodium intake by the European food Safety Authorization and World Health Organization. Consequently, its salt reduction is considerably important to postpone adverse effects induced by sodium. Salt is used in wheat bread as a technological and sensory improver. Different salt reduction strategies (e.g. sodium free mineral salts, hollow salts, uneven salt distribution, amino acids and plant based salt boosters) had been assessed to reduce the sodium content in wheat bread. Despite their potential efficiency to partially imitate the technological and sensorial characteristics of salt in wheat breads, challenges also existed which may restrict their consumption level. Considering the importance of wheat bread in our daily diet, its high sodium content and the critical role of salt in its technological characteristics this study is aimed to review the influence of different salt reduction strategies in wheat bread from technological perspective.

The effects of yeast extract addition, with varied quantities of salt and sugar, on the chemical and mineral composition, colour and sensory properties of spelt bread, in order to obtain new products were investigated. The addition of 5 % yeast extract positively influenced the mineral characteristics and increased protein content by 30.77 %. As a salt substitution, addition of yeast extract improved appearance without deteriorating texture descriptors and breadcrumb quality, while the taste became more complex, but without increasing salty taste. Addition of sugar in samples with yeast extract, improved most sensory characteristics. The developed mathematical models of bread with yeast extract quality parameters were statistically significant, indicating the satisfactory approximation of the bread quality parameters within the varied formula. Bread samples with addition of 5 % yeast extract, 1.5 % of salt and 0 % sugar were determined as the best from the aspect of overall quality. A new product was obtained with good total quality, higher level of nutritional value and reduced salt content.

peer-reviewed The objective of this study was to optimise the acceptability of reduced-salt cooked ham containing a mixture of glycine and yeast extract as flavourings by using response surface methodology. Twelve different formulations were prepared with varying levels of salt and the two flavourings, according to a mixture design. The sensory properties were assessed along with the instrumental texture and colour. A multiple factor analysis showed that higher scores in tenderness, saltiness and juiciness were positively correlated, whereas instrumental hardness and chewiness were negatively correlated with acceptability. Response surface plots and optimisation software allowed the inference of two optimised formulations: HO1 with 1.3% salt and yeast extract content of 0.33%; and HO2 with 1.27% salt, 0.2% yeast extract and 0.16% glycine. A panel of 100 consumers found no significant differences in overall acceptability when both were compared to a control (1.63% salt). These results show it is possible to manufacture consumer accepted cooked ham with up to 20% salt reduction. This work was supported by the Food Institutional Research Measure (FIRM) of the Irish Department of Food, Agriculture and the Marine as part of the project titled “PROSSLOW; Development of consumer accepted low salt and low fat Irish traditional processed meat (Ref: 11F 026)”.

Sodium is an essential micro nutrient and an indispensable ingredient in most of the savoury foods. The salty taste is mainly contributed by sodium chloride through a proto-typical stimulus. The current sodium intake has been estimated to be exceeding normal recommendation at an alarming rate. This has given rise to health concerns since excessive sodium intake is associated with rise in blood pressure and eventually to cardiovascular diseases. The habitual salt intake among Asian population is around 10-12g/day against the WHO recommendation of 5-6g/day. Today food processing industries are facing challenges pertaining to sodium reduction, since it reduces the overall acceptability. In any food sodium can be reduced through a gradual lowering of salt level, however, this would require several months since it also decreases the overall palatability of foods. Another strategy that can be adopted to overcome this problem is to employ salt substitutes like monosodium glutamate (MSG). MSG has 30% less sodium in comparison to table salt and can help maintain palatability of foods. There are many studies supporting this observation. Our studies on the acceptability profile of salt reduced MSG incorporated fried preparations showed that approximately 25% of salt could be reduced in products without any significant effect on flavor profile. The results indicated that spice added product could be consumed with lower sodium levels and MSG had synergistic effect with spices. In salt reduced tomato soups, the control product with low salt was given lower scores as against MSG incorporated samples. It was also observed that increasing levels of MSG resulted in higher acceptance of products. Hence, it can be said that using MSG as a substitute would be a better option for maintaining adequate palatability in savoury foods with reduced sodium content.

The electrochemical properties of N-methyl- and N-phenyl-2,4,6-triphenylpyridinium perchlorates were studied by cyclic voltammetry (CV). The substituent at the nitrogen atom strongly affects the potentials of salt reduction and the electrochemical reversibility of the transfer of the second electron.

International audience; This study determined the effect of the incorporation of micronized salt on physicochemical, yield and consumer's sensory characteristics of beef burger. The micronized salt was obtained by sieving the commercial salt in a 60-mesh stainless steel sieve. The commercial (regular salt) and micronized salt presented differences in the mean size, size distribution and bulk density. Half of the amount of the micronized salt was mixed with pork back fat, and the other half was added to the meat batter in the beef burger manufacture. A Pivot profile method was used with consumers to describe the sensory properties of the burger samples (ranging from 0.5% to 1.5% NaCl). The Pivot profile data revealed that treatments with 0.75% and 0.5% micronized salt were mainly characterized as dry, besides showing the highest cooking loss and diameter reduction. However, beef burgers with 1.0% micronized salt and 1.5% regular salt had similar perceived salty taste. In terms of salt reduction, the results indicated that it would be possible to reduce salt from 1.5% to 1.0% when using micronized salt, without affecting the pH, color parameters, yield properties and some sensory characteristics of the burger, such as salty, tasty, juicy, fatty, and spicy. Therefore, this strategy promises great potential for industrial application in products that contain lipids in their composition, such as meat products.

International audience; Numerous scientific studies have shown that overconsumption of salt can be harmful and promotes the development of cardiovascular diseases. For this reason, many international organizations and government agencies aim to reduce overall salt consumption from food. Recent exploratory work has shown that vitamin B4 can play the role of salt substitute. This study aims on the one hand to develop and optimize a bread recipe reduced in salt and enriched with vitamin B4. On the other, it aims to study the acceptability for consumers of this double innovation, combining the addition and withdrawal of a nutrient. The study was conducted with French consumers. The sensory test showed that vitamin B4 tends to increase the perception of salt in salt-reduced bread. The acceptance of reduced-salt and vitamin B4-enriched bread was investigated in three focus-groups, mixing blind tests, information input and spontaneous evocations. Three potential targets have been identified: health-oriented young people, young parents who want to educate children to engage in a healthy lifestyle, and people broadly sensitive to nutritional information. Consumers with a pleasure and taste-oriented profile were more skeptical of the new bread formula because of greater attachment to traditional, salty French bread.

Response surface methodology was used to develop sensory acceptable, low-salt, shelf-stable frankfurters. A Box–Behnken experimental design assessed the effects of three independent factors: salt replacer (Artisalt™) (0–100%), high-pressure processing (HPP) (0.1–600 MPa) and a mix of organic acids (Inbac™) (0.2–0.4%). Measured responses included: hardness, flavour, saltiness and overall sensory acceptability (OSA) of the frankfurters. The primary factor affecting (P

Higher salt intake is associated with the risk of cardiovascular and kidney diseases, hypertension and gastric cancer. Salt intake reduction represents an effective way to improve people’s health, either by the right choice of food or by a reduction of added salt. Salt substitutes are often used and also herb homogenates are treated by high pressure technology. Salt reduction significantly influences the shelf life, texture, pH, taste, and aroma of cheese. The composition of emulsifying salts or starter cultures must be modified to enact changes in microbial diversity, protease activity and the ripening process. The texture becomes softer and aroma atypical. In bakery products, a salt reduction of only 20–30% is acceptable. Water absorption, dough development, length and intensity of kneading and stability of dough are changed. Gluten development and its viscoelastic properties are affected. The salt reduction promotes yeast growth and CO2 production. Specific volume and crust colour intensity decreased, and the crumb porosity changed. In meat products, salt provides flavour, texture, and shelf life, and water activity increases. In this case, myofibrillar proteins’ solubility, water binding activity and colour intensity changes were found. The composition of curing nitrite salt mixtures and starter cultures must be modified.

BackgroundSodium intake in China is extremely high. Given the increasing consumption of restaurant foods, and limited research has explored the sodium level of these foods. The present study aims to assess the content and sources of sodium in Chinese restaurants. MethodsCross-sectional data were obtained from the baseline survey of Restaurant-based Intervention Study (RIS) in 2019. 8131 best-selling restaurant dishes with detailed recipe information from 192 restaurants in China were selected. Sodium levels per 100g and per serving were calculated according to Chinese Food Composition Table. The proportions of serving-size restaurant dishes exceeding the daily sodium reference intake level and sodium contributions by major sources were also explored. ResultsIn total, the median values of sodium in restaurant dishes were 487.3mg per 100g, 3.4mg per kcal, and 2543.7mg per serving. 74.9% of dishes per serving exceeded Chinese adults’ daily sodium adequate intake (AI, 1500mg per day), while 62.6% of dishes exceeded the proposed intake for preventing non-communicable chronic diseases (PI, 2000mg per day). Cooking salt was the leading source of sodium in Chinese restaurant dishes, accounting for 45.8%, followed by monosodium glutamate (17.5%), food ingredients (17.1%), soy sauce (9.4%), and other condiments/seasonings (10.2%). More categories of salted condiments/seasonings usage were related to higher sodium level. ConclusionsThe sodium level in Chinese restaurants is high. Coordinated salt reduction initiatives are needed according to the major sources of sodium in restaurant foods.

Background Excessive intake of sodium is a major public health concern. Information on knowledge, perception, and practice (KPP) related to sodium intake in Malaysia is important for the development of an effective salt reduction strategy. This study aimed to investigate the KPP related to sodium intake among Malaysian adults and to determine associations between KPP and dietary sodium intake. Methods Data were obtained from Malaysian Community Salt Survey (MyCoSS) which is a nationally representative survey with proportionate stratified cluster sampling design. A pre-tested face-to-face questionnaire was used to collect information on socio-demographic background, and questions from the World Health Organization/Pan American Health Organization were adapted to assess the KPP related to sodium intake. Dietary sodium intake was determined using single 24-h urinary sodium excretion. Respondents were categorized into two categories: normal dietary sodium intake (< 2000 mg) and excessive dietary sodium intake (≥ 2000 mg). Out of 1440 respondents that were selected to participate, 1047 respondents completed the questionnaire and 798 of them provided valid urine samples. Factors associated with excessive dietary sodium intake were analyzed using complex sample logistic regression analysis. Results Majority of the respondents knew that excessive sodium intake could cause health problems (86.2%) and more than half of them (61.8%) perceived that they consume just the right amount of sodium. Overall, complex sample logistic regression analysis revealed that excessive dietary sodium intake was not significantly associated with KPP related to sodium intake among respondents (P > 0.05). Conclusion The absence of significant associations between KPP and excessive dietary sodium intake suggests that salt reduction strategies should focus on sodium reduction education includes measuring actual dietary sodium intake and educating the public about the source of sodium. In addition, the relationship between the authority and food industry in food reformulation needs to be strengthened for effective dietary sodium reduction in Malaysia.

Increasing consumption of instant noodles with high sodium content could elevate the risk of cardiovascular disease. Making instant noodle seasoning in the form of an oil-in-water emulsion was expected to improve the perception of salty taste without increasing the use of salt. However, the oil concentration in the emulsion affects the perception. The addition of antioxidant and retort processing was needed to overcome the nature of the emulsion that was quite susceptible to oxidation and microbial contamination. Preliminary research determined the optimum concentration of oil and antioxidant based on physical characteristics, the perception/gustation of saltiness, and emulsion oxidative stability and the results were used for further research. The final part of the research determined the effects of retort processing on emulsion stability, the perception of saltiness, and the degree of microbial contamination. Three different oil concentrations (26, 27, and 28%) and three types of antioxidants (natural vitamin E, ascorbyl palmitate and mixed tocopherol) were applied to the instant noodle seasoning oil-in-water emulsions. The results showed that using 28% oil and mixed tocopherol had the most stability, was more viscous, and had optimum salty taste perception, which significantly extended the shelf-life of the emulsion compared with the others. Retort processing for 21.5 minutes in 123.5 °C was applied to the seasoning emulsion with 28% oil content and mixed tocopherol. Although, the microbial contamination was significantly reduced, neither the stability of emulsion nor the perception of salty taste was significantly changed by the process.

Brine soaking is one of the most important steps in the production of Parmigiano Reggiano cheese, since it determines the amount of salt in the final product. Reduction in salt in Parmigiano Reggiano cheese might be important for improving its nutritional profile, but it could affect the manufacturing processes by altering proteolysis and consequently the product quality. In this study, for the first time, salt reduction was explored at the industrial level on real cheese samples manufactured in a local dairy. In particular, 20 wheels were produced with conventional (18 days, 10 wheels) and shorter (12 days, 10 wheels) brining steps. In every group, wheels were studied at two different ripening times, 15 and 30 months. A shorter brining time resulted in an average 12% decrease in salt content. A full characterization of free amino acids and peptides was performed by LC-MS on all samples. Free amino acids and peptides, as expected, increased with ripening, due to proteolysis, with samples having low salt content showing a slightly faster increase when compared to standard ones, hinting to a slightly accelerated proteolytic process. Nonetheless, low-salt and conventional cheeses shared similar sensory profiles at both ripening times.

Sodium intake is a major risk factor for non-communicable diseases. Consequently, reformulation of cheeses such as Edam to contain less sodium may contribute to lowering disease risk. However, sodium is essential for cheese manufacture, influencing starter culture bacteria activity and abundance during fermentation. This study aimed to assess the microbial diversity of reformulated Edam cheese samples with a reduced sodium content using culture-independent technique. The microbial diversity of samples produced using simple sodium reduction, as well as by substituting salt with a mineral salt compound containing potassium, were analysed in comparison to regular control Edam samples during manufacture and the subsequent 6-week ripening period using 16S rDNA metagenomics. In addition, a challenge test using Listeria (List.) innocua as a surrogate species for List. monocytogenes was performed. Reducing sodium content did not influence the microbiological composition of reformulated samples in comparison to that of regular samples. The starter culture bacteria dominated the microbial diversity and no increase in spoilage or potentially pathogenic bacterial growth was detected, including that of List. innocua. From a microbiological perspective, it can be concluded that lowering sodium content in Edam samples without affecting the microbial composition is achievable through simple sodium reduction and through implementation of a mineral salt replacement approach.

Using umami can help reduce excessive salt intake, which contributes to cardiovascular disease. Differences in salt-exposed environment at birth and preference for the salty taste might affect the sense of taste. Focusing on these two differences, we investigated the effect of monosodium L-glutamate (MSG) on the saltiness and palatability of low-salt solutions. Japanese participants (64 men, 497 women, aged 19–86 years) tasted 0.3%, 0.6%, and 0.9% NaCl solutions with or without 0.3% MSG to evaluate saltiness and palatability. They were also asked about their birthplace, personal salty preference, and family salty preference. Adding MSG enhanced saltiness, especially in the 0.3% NaCl solution, while the effect was attenuated in the 0.6% and 0.9% NaCl solutions. Palatability was rated higher with MSG than without MSG for each NaCl solution, with a peak value for the 0.3% NaCl solution with MSG. There was no difference in the effect of umami ingredients on palatability between the average salt intake by the regional block at birth and salty preference (all p &gt, 0.05). Thus, adding an appropriate amount of umami ingredients can facilitate salt reduction in diet while maintaining palatability regardless of the salt-exposed environment in early childhood or salty preference.

As bread is the most consumed food by the Tunisian population and the major source of salt, a pilot experiment of salt reduction in bread was begun in Bizerte city. Salt analysis in bread collected from Bizerte city was done with the Volhard titration method. A one-way Anova test was carried out to assess salt content changes over time. Application of the salt reduction programme allowed a gradual decrease of salt content in bread by 35% during three years without detection by Tunisian consumers. The salt concentration in bread was then reduced from 1.7 ± 0.2 g/100 g to 1.1 ± 0.1 g/100 g (p &lt, 0.0001). The establishment of an effective salt reduction strategy with lifestyle education is needed to reduce hypertension, which is the primary cause of death in Tunisia.

Objective To assess the effects of a novel mass media intervention in increasing media reports on salt and health by involving media reporters in a scientifically well designed salt reduction trial. Methods We recruited and trained 66 media reporters in Changzhi, Shanxi province, China to conduct a randomized controlled trial on blood pressure lowering effect of salt substitute in Dec, 2012 and Jan 2013 among their own relatives or friends (253 from 129 families in the salt substitute arm and 263 from 133 families in the control arm for two months). We shared trial results and other information on salt and health with the reporters within a month after the trial. We monitored all local newspapers for the number of relevant articles in 3 months before, 3 months during and 3 months after the intervention and at the 6th, 12th, 18th, 24th and 48th months after the intervention. Additionally, we conducted two independent surveys on knowledge, belief and behaviours of salt and health among local citizens before and after the intervention. Results As expected, systolic blood pressure was reduced significantly more in the salt substitute than the control group (-4.7±11.0 mmHg vs -2.6±10.3 mmHg, pth to 48th month; the awareness of knowledge on salt and health among local citizens improved significantly after the intervention. Conclusions Media reporters’ participation in a well-designed salt reduction trial significantly increased the number of relevant media reports, and the effect was sustained for a prolonged period. Future mass media public health education programs should consider this innovative strategy for better and sustained impacts.

The present study evaluated the effect of salt reduction using a seawater substitutes, at the nutritional and mineral composition, its physicochemical, biochemical, microbiological, and sensory characteristics of Iberian chorizo, compared with one elaborated with low salt content (KCl) and another with a normal salt content (CTRL). To this end, three batches of chorizo were prepared [Treatment 1: CTRL, 100% NaCl; Treatment 2: KCl, 31% KCl, and Treatment 3: SC (Winbi®), w) were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than in the CTRL chorizo. The chorizo with lower salt content presented higher proteolytic activity; with the nutritional declaration “reduced Na content “with Na values 25% lower than the CTRL. In addition, using this combination caused significant effects (P < 0.05) on the mineral composition of chorizo SC, allowing the inclusion of more nutritional and health claims in its labeling under legislation. The partial substitution of NaCl for KCl (31%), caused an increase in the gumminess, chewiness, and hardness of the chorizo. The SC chorizo lost the reddish hue typical of this sausage, although it was the best sensory valued by a panel of consumers. No differences were observed in the microbiological quality of the different batches of chorizo, always fulfilling the legally established microbiological criteria.

Seawater is rich in minerals which may help confer good palatability to foods, favouring the use of smaller amounts of salt, a recognized measure of cardiovascular prevention. The aim of this study was to investigate the nutritional properties, sensory characteristics and metabolic effects of a typical Neapolitan pizza prepared with seawater (SWP) in place of common salt, in comparison with Standard traditional Pizza (StP). The nutritional characteristics and the chemical profile of the SWP and StP were assessed by chemical analyses and the use of Food Composition Tables. Twelve healthy volunteers were recruited for a Randomized Controlled Trial, with the consumption of one StP and one SWP using a balanced crossover design. The satiating power and palatability of the two pizzas were tested by the administration of Visual Analogue Scales. Serum glucose, insulin and sodium were measured every 30 min and 3 h urines were collected after each meal. SWP contained nearly 50% less NaCl and a larger amount of micronutrients compared with StP. No significant differences were detected between the two pizzas with regard to satiating power, pleasantness and glycemic and insulinemic response. However, a significant difference was found in the urine volume collected over the 3 h after the two meals (194 mL after StP vs. 292 mL after SWP, p = 0.018) and in the 3 h sodium balance (+1.6 g after StP vs. +0.5 g after SWP, p = 0.002). Conclusions: SWP appears to be a food with favourable nutritional characteristics, very good acceptability and healthy metabolic properties: these results warrant confirmation by a larger intervention trial.

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is an indispensable ingredient in meat products, but the consumption of high doses of sodium contained in their formulations may bring about negative health implications. The replacement of NaCl by other salts in meat products has been a technological challenge. Accordingly, this review highlights the importance of NaCl over other sodium and non‑sodium salts in the saltiness perception and proposes the use of reduced-size and shapes of NaCl to maximize saltiness perception, while using less NaCl dosages in meat products. However, the effect of matrix components (water, proteins and fats) on the final salty taste is of special consideration. To counteract the effect of the matrix components, two main routes of incorporation of different NaCl types in meat products are discussed: encapsulation and protection of NaCl by the hydrophobic component of the meat product. Given the limited number of publications using this potential strategy, more studies on the application of these technological strategies are required.

Lentilactobacillus parabuchneri, a member of the non-starter microbiota in cheese, was recently associated with fast and effective histamine-formation ability, a safety issue. The present study was performed to investigate Lentilactobacillus parabuchneri KUH8, a histamine-producer (HP) in reduced-salt Cheddar cheese. Four cheeses were manufactured: 1) normal-salt (NS); 2) reduced-salt (RS); 3) normal-salt with HP (NS+HP); 4) reduced-salt with HP (RS+HP). Two replicates were produced with milk from the same batch, and the cheeses ripened at 10 and 15 °C. Cheeses were sampled immediately after manufacture and after 1, 3 and 6 months of ripening. Ultra-high-performance-liquid chromatography indicated that with the HP, histamine reached higher levels in reduced-salt cheeses (3.5–3.7% S/M) at 15 °C (86, 1112, 2149 and 3149 mg kg−1), compared to normal-salt cheeses (5.4–6.3% S/M) at 10 °C (78, 584, 593 and 1389 mg kg−1), at each respective cheese-sampling point. Higher salt-content reduced the growth rate of non-starter microbiota, but after six months the levels in all cheeses were similar, according to the ripening temperature: at 10 °C (8.05–8.30 log10 cfu g−1), and at 15 °C (6.00–6.94 log10 cfu g−1). A correlation between increased histamine levels, non-starter-cell development and pH was found. This study highlights the importance of normal-salt content and low-ripening temperature as measures to control histamine-formation and to improve safety in cheese.

Objective: To analyse the Na content of bread by comparing the amount of salt and Na among the label, laboratory analysis and international guidelines. Design: Ten selected bakeries provided 3239 randomly selected samples of bread, which were weighed on-site. Triplicate samples were retrieved from each bakery (thirty samples) for analysis. Bread production was observed, and ingredient labels were queried to determine salt weights, which were used for comparison with the laboratory analysis. Flame photometry and the method for chlorides were utilised for analysing Na. Laboratory findings were compared to nine different international nutritional guidelines for Na consumption. Setting: Florianopolis, south of Brazil. Participants: Ninety independent bakeries locally producing Portuguese rolls were queried; rolls from ten conveniently selected bakeries were retrieved for further analysis. Results: The average weight of the rolls was 50·2 ± 5·3 g. The average amount of salt (g) per roll, by laboratory and label analyses, was 0·69 ± 0·0 and 0·62 ± 0·1 g, respectively. The mean level of Na (mg) reported on nutrient labels (478·2 ± 93·4/100 g) was significantly lower than by laboratory analysis (618·2 ± 73·8/100 g), P < 0·001. There was a difference for Na in rolls produced in the bakeries considering the unit weight of rolls (P ≤ 0·001) per 100 g (P = 0·026) and the mode of production. The consumption of two averaged units of rolls was equivalent to 51·7 % of the Brazilian guideline daily amount for Na for children and 31 % for adults. Conclusions: The nutrient labels underreported Na values. This study strengthens the importance of monitoring Na of breads in Brazil.

Given the more recent interest in its flavour enhancing potential, the effects of the addition of glucosamine or glucosamine caramel on both technological and consumer acceptability of regular and reduced salt breakfast sausages were studied. A 2 × 3 complete factorial design was used with salt level (regular salt, RS (1.1%) and low salt, LS (0.825%)) and formulation treatment (control, GlcN – glucosamine (1%), CAR - glucosamine caramel (1% GlcN equivalent)) as main effects. Raw or cooked sausages were analyzed for CIE L*, a* and b*, physical and textural properties and consumer acceptance. Different salt levels did not affect the pH of meat batter, while the reduced salt treatment resulted in higher cook loss. On the contrary, addition of GlcN and CAR reduced the pH of sausage with no effect on cook loss. Neither salt levels nor treatment formulation affected the textural attributes of sausages. The inclusion of CAR significantly reduced L* value and increased redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) of cooked sausages. Salt reduction resulted in decreased a* and b* values in raw batter; the effect which disappeared in cooked sausages. Glucosamine caramel increased the overall and flavour acceptability score of low salt breakfast sausages. The present study showed that glucosamine caramel could potentially improve the flavour of low salt breakfast sausage with limited effect on textural attributes.

Replacement of NaCl with other salts is becoming increasingly common as part of a salt reduction strategy, but these salts may confer unwanted sensory changes. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the relationship between consumer perception and electronic tongue detection of different salts and their mixtures currently used in salt reduction. NaCl and replacement salts (KCl and CaCl2 ) were identified, and using mixture design methodology, mixtures (n = 10) were prepared in aqueous solutions and validated in tomato soup. A potentiometric electronic tongue, panelists with orientation (n = 30), and a consumer panel (n = 94 - solutions; n = 100 - soups) were used to evaluate the samples. Significant differences were found between salt mixtures in solutions and soups by both panelists and consumers (P 0.90) were found between sensory and electronic tongue data. Upon application of contour plots and desirability function analysis, an optimal replacement value was identified as one containing 96.4% NaCl, 1.6% KCl, and 2.0% CaCl2 . Additional salt blends could be created to continue to reduce NaCl and increase the other two salts, for further potential health benefits, without significantly impacting predicted acceptance scores. Results from this study indicate the potential for the electronic tongue, sensory evaluation, and mixture design methodology to work together during product reformulations to achieve salt reduction targets. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The results show that salt mixtures vary in perception and acceptance in different matrices, and thus should be evaluated on a product by product basis. With its ability to discriminate among various salts, the application of the electronic tongue could be useful for industry in the development of products with different salt formulations to reduce NaCl within processed foods. Additionally, mixture design can help find a predicted optimum mixture for the product under investigation.

Salt reduction in liquid/semi-solid processed foods remains a significant challenge as these foods contribute mostly to the high dietary sodium intake in our daily life. From the results of a taste contrast and quantitative saltiness analysis with trained panels, we found that the addition of high amounts of gum arabic could enhance the saltiness perception of standard NaCl solution and enable a 30% reduction of salt in yogurt drink and mayonnaise without impacting the saltiness perception. Via in vitro sodium retention experiments conducted using ex vivo porcine tongue, simulated tongue and Transwell methods, we suggested that the enhanced saltiness and sodium retention on the mucosa were possibly due to the mucopenetration ability of gum arabic. This finding would be useful for the design of low-salt liquid/semi-solid foods and has implications for novel food formulations to enhance flavor and nutrient delivery.

Several government agencies have established guidelines for the food industry to reduce sugar, fat, and salt in processed foods. The objective of this study was to determine the dynamic sensory profile of tomato sauce formulated with flavor enhancers, a bitter blocker and 50% sodium content reduction. The perception of consumers and a trained panel was explored. Consumers performed temporal dominance of sensations (TDS) and temporal acceptance (TA) while the trained panel performed time-intensity analysis (TI). TA indicated that flavor enhancers improve initial acceptance of a sample but that its masking effect weakens 30 s after ingestion. TI showed that despite promoting salty equivalence, substitute salts were not able to completely suppress the bitter taste characteristic of potassium chloride and the addition of lysine as a bitter blocker was the least effective strategy. In TDS the bitter taste was not dominant in any of the samples. However, the presence of unusual flavors/tastes to the consumers like metallic and umami seems to have interfered negatively in the evaluation of the flavors. Flavor enhancers have been widely used to reformulate processed foods in order to reduce sodium content, preserving sensory acceptance. This study provides information on the dynamic behavior of different salt substitutes.

The aim was to examine the effects of two different salt reduction strategies on selected cardiovascular risk factors. The study was a four-month cluster randomised controlled study. Eighty-nine healthy Danish families (309 individuals) were randomly assigned to either (A) gradually salt-reduced bread, (B) gradually salt-reduced bread and dietary counselling to further reduce salt intake and increase potassium intake or (C) standard bread (control). The effect was assessed using linear mixed models. Intention to treat analyses comparing changes in the three groups showed a significant reduction in body fat percent (&minus, 1.31% (&minus, 2.40, &minus, 0.23)) and a borderline significant reduction in total plasma cholesterol (&minus, 0.25 mmol/L (&minus, 0.51, 0.01) and plasma renin (&minus, 0.19 pmol/L (&minus, 0.39, 0.00) in group A compared to the control group. Adjusted complete case analyses showed a significant reduction in total plasma cholesterol (&minus, 0.29 mmol/L (&minus, 0.50, 0.08), plasma LDL cholesterol (&minus, 0.08 mmol/L (&minus, 0.15, 0.00)), plasma renin (&minus, 0.23 pmol/L (&minus, 0.41, 0.05)), plasma adrenaline (&minus, 0.03 nmol/L (&minus, 0.06, 0.01)) and body fat percent (&minus, 1.53% (&minus, 2.51, 0.54)) in group A compared to the control group. No significant changes were found in group B compared to the control group. In conclusion, receiving sodium reduce bread was associated with beneficial changes in cardiovascular risk factors. No adverse effects were observed.