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This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-friendly/Sustainable Approach to Polysaccharides as (nano) materials., Agave, commonly known as “maguey” is an important part of the Mexican tradition and economy, and is mainly used for the production of alcoholic beverages, such as tequila. Industrial exploitation generates by-products, including leaves, bagasse, and fibers, that can be re-valorized. Agave is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, fructans, and pectin, as well as simple carbohydrates. Regarding functional properties, fructans content makes agave a potential source of prebiotics with the capability to lower blood glucose and enhance lipid homeostasis when it is incorporated as a prebiotic ingredient in cookies and granola bars. Agave also has phytochemicals, such as saponins and flavonoids, conferring anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties, among other benefits. Agave fibers are used for polymer-based composite reinforcement and elaboration, due to their thermo-mechanical properties. Agave bagasse is considered a promising biofuel feedstock, attributed to its high-water efficiency and biomass productivity, as well as its high carbohydrate content. The optimization of physical and chemical pretreatments, enzymatic saccharification and fermentation are key for biofuel production. Emerging technologies, such as ultrasound, can provide an alternative to current pretreatment processes. In conclusion, agaves are a rich source of by-products with a wide range of potential industrial applications, therefore novel processing methods are being explored for a sustainable re-valorization of these residues., This research was funded by LINKB20023 in collaboration between CSIC and Tecnologico de Monterrey. Author Jimena Álvarez-Chávez was supported by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACyT)–Mexico, scholarship number 786912.

Context Lithothamnion calcareum is a calcitic seaweed (CS), rich in calcium (Ca) and other minerals, with potential for use in piglet feeding. Aim The aims were to compare L. Calcareum (CS) with calcitic limestone (CL) as a source of Ca for use in piglet feeding for effects on total tract digestibility and daily balance of Ca, growth performance and serum variables, and to assess solubility of Ca sources through in vitro testing. Methods In Expt 1, an availability assay was performed on 24 crossbred male piglets with initial average body weight (BW) of 15.17 ± 0.70 kg in a randomised complete block design with six replicates of four treatments and one piglet per experimental unit. The starter dietary treatments were: basal diet with minimal amount of Ca (0.068%); diet with low Ca (0.018%); and two diets containing either CL or CS to provide 0.82% total Ca. In Expt 2 (growth performance), 96 crossbred male piglets, with initial average BW of 6.01 ± 0.70 kg were assigned in a randomised complete block design with eight replicates of three treatments (CL, CL + CS, or CS) and four piglets per experimental unit, assessed over pre-starter phases I and II and the starter phase. Key results In Expt 1, Ca source did not influence (P > 0.05) apparent and true digestibility or daily balance and concentration of Ca in the piglets. In Expt 2, no significant differences (P > 0.05) existed for growth performance during the pre-starter I and II phases, although a trend (P ≤ 0.1) was evident for final BW, daily weight gain and feed conversion ratio (FCR) during the pre-starter II phase. Piglets fed CL showed a reduction in FCR during the starter phase (P = 0.02) and for the total period (P = 0.007). Final BW and daily weight gain did not differ between CL and CS diets during the starter phase or for the total period. No effect (P > 0.05) was observed of Ca source on Ca and phosphorus concentrations in serum. CS had a solubility 1.9 times higher than CL. Conclusion Piglet performance parameters were generally similar for diets including CS and CL as a source of Ca. Implications Based on the evaluation criteria used in these experiments, L. calcareum has potential to replace calcitic limestone as an alternative source of Ca.

Agave bagasse is a waste material generated during agave sap collection for “pulque” production. This residue is a potential feedstock for steroidal saponins and other phytochemicals. Ultrasonically assisted extraction (UAE) allows the use of green solvents such as water or ethanol for phytochemicals recovery. The influence of solvent composition and its effect on the intensity of the ultrasonic field during the UAE of agave bagasse saponins were evaluated. The best extraction conditions were a temperature of 60 °C (T) and a solvent-to-mass ratio of 20 (S/M), for conventional and UAE. In contrast to conventional extraction, where mixtures of ethanol-water were more efficient, water was the best extraction solvent in UAE. The amount of saponins obtained without ultrasound in 58% ethanol (22.48 ± 1.34 mg PE/g dw) was similar to the amount obtained by UAE in water (24.41 ± 0.84 mg PE/g dw). When only water was used, the ultrasound intensity was higher (271.40 ± 11.91 W/L) than in ethanol mixtures (144.81–202.30 W/L) due to cavitation intensity, demonstrated in a test on aluminum foil and SEM images of exhausted bagasse. Despite lower chemical affinity of water for saponins, its lower vapor pressure and viscosity, as well as higher surface tension, compared with ethanol, provided a greater cavitation intensity. Therefore, UAE using water is an excellent alternative to recover bioactive compounds from agave bagasse.

Silvetia compressa is a brown seaweed native to the coast of Baja California, Mexico. It is a rich source of phlorotannins and polysaccharides, two compound families with important nutraceutical applications. Optimal conditions for obtaining highly concentrated phlorotannin and polysaccharide extracts from S. compressa were determined using Box-Behnken experimental design combined with response surface methodology (RSM). The effect of extraction temperature (X1: 50–65 °C), ultrasound power density (X2: 1.2–3.8 W cL−1), solvent/seaweed ratio (X3: 10–30 mL g−1 seaweed meal), and ethanol concentration (X4: 25–100% ethanol in water) on phlorotannin and polysaccharide yield was explored. Experimental results were fitted to a second-degree polynomial model, while model fitness was assessed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). From this analysis, optimal phlorotannin and polysaccharide extraction conditions were determined for the evaluated parameters (X1 = 50 °C, X2 = 3.8 W cL−1, X3 = 30 mL g−1 seaweed meal, and X4 = 32.33%). Under these conditions, experimental phlorotannin and polysaccharide yields were 0.73% and 23% (w/w), respectively. Phlorotannin extraction was significantly enhanced by ultrasound power density, while polysaccharide extraction improved when using low ethanol concentration in the solvent, therefore both families of compounds were obtained combining those parameters. Experimental data agreed with predictions from the RSM model, indicating suitability of the obtained model and the success of RSM in optimizing the extraction conditions. In addition, the identification of the main compounds in the phlorotannin extract was carried out by HPLC-MS-TOF; 8 of the 12 identified phenolic compounds belonged to the phlorotannin family, 4 from the fuhalol group, 3 being eckol derivatives, and 1 being a phloroglucinol subunit.

Concentrated agave sap is a product with in vivo proven hypocholesterolemic and hypoglycemic activities, as well as in vitro anticancer potential. In the present work, a factorial design was used to determine the suitable drying conditions of concentrated agave by studying the effect of inlet temperature (150 °C, 180 °C and 210 °C) and the type of carrier agent (maltodextrin, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, guar gum and xanthan gum). The response variables for each treatment were the product recovery and microencapsulated saponins. Further characterization of concentrated agave powders was performed: solubility in water, hygroscopicity, moisture content, tap density, bulk density, Carr’s index followability and morphology by scanning electron microscopy analysis. The hydroxypropyl methylcellulose proved to improve physicochemical properties and enhance product yield, using 210 °C inlet temperature and a mix of carrier agents of maltodextrin/hydroxypropyl methylcellulose/xanthan gum at 50/48.5/1.5 (w/w/w) proportion exhibited the highest saponin recovery of 53.81%. Moreover, different carrier agents in powders revealed two shapes, regular spherical shape with smooth surface and collapsed shapes. The use of polymers excipients helped to decrease the stickiness of the desired product and enhanced the powder stability and microencapsulation of the steroidal saponins.

Objective Evaluate the partial replacement of soybean meal with different protein sources in piglet feed during the nursery phase in terms of digestibility of feed, nitrogen balance, growth performance and blood parameters. Methods Experiment I involved 24 crossbred entire male pigs with an initial body weight of 18.28 ± 0.7 kg, and used a randomized complete block design consisting of three treatments (Fish Meal - FM, Soybean Protein Concentrate - SPC, and Soybean Meal - SM) and eight replicates, with one pig per experimental unit. Experiment II involved 1843 crossbred male and female pigs with an initial body weight of 6.79 ± 0.90 kg, and was based on a completely randomized design with a 2 × 3 factorial arrangement (two sexes and three protein sources) and 13 replicates. Results The results of Experiment I indicate a significant effect (p

Neutral electrolyzed water (NEW) was tested as a disinfectant against Listeria monocytogenes on the surface of table eggs. Eggs were collected from a single Bovans White flock and were exposed to L. monocytogenes. Artificially contaminated eggs were divided into three different treatment groups: NEW, 2% citric acid solution (CAS), and saline solution (SS). To evaluate the bactericidal effect, the Mexican norm for antimicrobial activity determination protocol was performed. The observed bactericidal effect was compared against those obtained from CAS and SS. Bacterial cells present on the eggshells were quantified. NEW exhibited a significantly higher bactericidal effect than CAS when evaluated on the surfaces of chicken eggshells (6.11 log10CFU/ml reduction in vitro and a 2.18 log10 CFU/egg reduction on eggs vs. 1.06 log10CFU/ml in vitro reduction and 1.74 log10CFU/egg). Additionally, CAS was found to react with the carbonate egg shield, resulting in a loss of cuticle integrity. Mineral content of NEW‐treated eggshells was similar to SS‐treated eggshells; however, CAS‐treated eggshells showed a significant decrease in phosphorous concentration compared to NEW treatment. In this study, we demonstrated the effect of NEW and CAS on the integrity of the L. monocytogenes wall using transmission electron microscopy. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the effect of NEW against L. monocytogenes on eggshells. Our results show that NEW is a viable alternative solution for the disinfection of table eggs that does not affect the cuticle or shell.

Egg-yolk based supplements have demonstrated biological effects. We have developed a novel processed egg-yolk (PEY) complement, and we have tested whether it has inflammation modulatory properties. These were evaluated in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-challenge in 1-month male rats by in vivo circulating cytokine profiles measured by multiplexing techniques. Cell culture was used to explore ex vivo properties of derived serum samples. We explored growth factor composition, and mass-spectrometry metabolome and lipidome analyses of PEY to characterize it. PEY significantly prevented LPS-induced increase in IL-1 &beta, TNF-&alpha, and MCP-1. Further, serum from PEY-treated animals abrogated LPS-induced iNOS build-up of the Raw 264.7 macrophage-like cell line. Immunochemical analyses demonstrated increased concentrations of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) in the extract. PEY vs. egg-yolk comparative metabolomic analyses showed significative differences in the concentrations of at least 140 molecules, and in 357 in the lipidomic analyses, demonstrating the complexity of PEY. Globally, PEY acts as an orally-bioavailable immunomodulatory extract that may be of interest in those conditions associated with disarranged inflammation, such as inflammaging.

Phenolic compounds are a widespread group of phytochemicals derived from the secondary metabolism of herbs and plants. Phytochemicals are mainly produced as a plant response to biotic and abiotic stresses to overcome/adapt these adverse conditions. The study of abiotic stress response of plants has led to numerous discoveries regarding flavonoids and phenolic acids biosynthetic pathways. Since phenolic compounds such as flavonoids and phenolic acids have been related to numerous bioactive health effects, it is of interest to enhance the content of these compounds in plants and herbs. One of the most studied abiotic stresses on herbs is manipulation of light, whether through use of different light colors, light intensity, and/or sunlight. One of the most active groups of compounds elicited in response of light stress is flavones, flavonols, and some phenolic acids. These groups of compounds have been related to health benefits to humans such as antioxidant, cardiovascular disease, and against metabolic syndrome. This chapter aims to comprehensive review recent works on this field.

Few studies had demonstrated the interaction of phlorotannins and polysaccharides from algae on microbial diversity and growth of probiotic bacteria on the early stages of colonic fermentation. Silvetia compresssa hydroethanolic extract rich in phlorotannins and its isolated polysaccharides fraction enabled the proliferation of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus and increased total short-chain fatty acids synthesis compared to a negative control. Eckstolonol, dieckol and acacetin derivative in hydroethanolic extract were depleted after eight hours of in vitro colonic fermentation. After a 48 h fermentation, hydroethanolic extract showed high levels of acetic (104.82 µmol g−1 wet feces) and propionic acids (78.58 µmol g−1 wet feces), as well as an increase in Bifidobacterium (log10 6.77 CFU g−1 wet feces) and Lactobacillus (log10 4.25 CFU g−1 wet feces) growth. These results showed no significant difference with inulin (p > 0.05), suggesting the potential of Silvetia compresssa hydroethanolic extract to improve human gut microbiota.

Neutral Electrolyzed Water (NEW) was tested in vitro and on artificially contaminated eggs against Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica or Escherichia coli. The antibacterial effect was measured 30 s after treatment. NEW microbicide activity results were compared against 2% citric acid and 0.9% saline solutions. NEW caused an in vitro decrease in Salmonella titers by ˃5.56 Log10 CFU mL−1 and in artificially contaminated eggs by ˃1.45 Log10 CFU/egg. When it was tested against E. coli, it decreased in vitro bacterial titers by ˃3.28 Log10 CFU mL−1 and on artificially contaminated eggs by ˃6.39 Log10 CFU/egg. The 2% citric acid solution caused an in vitro decrease of 0.4 Log10 CFU mL−1 of Salmonella and E. coli and on eggs artificially contaminated with E. coli or Salmonella there was a decrease of 0.06 and 0.62 Log10 CFU/egg respectively. We evaluated egg cuticle integrity by scanning electron microscopy after treatments with evaluated solutions; the 2% citric acid solution caused damage to the cuticle and exposed eggshell pores and no interaction of NEW or NaCl with the cuticle was observed. NEW treatment showed a fast-bactericidal effect in vitro and table eggs.

In search of pharmaceutically active products to control type 2 diabetes, five brown seaweeds (Silvetia compressa, Cystoseira osmundacea, Ecklonia arborea, Pterygophora californica, and Egregia menziesii) from the Northwest Mexican Pacific coast were investigated. Proximate composition and total polyphenol content (TPC) as phloroglucinol equivalents (PGE) were determined for the five seaweed powders and their respective hydroethanolic (1 : 1) extracts. Extracts were screened for their radical scavenging activity (DPPH and ORAC) and glycosidase inhibitory activity. HPLC-DAD, HPLC-MS-TOF, and ATR-FT-IR methodologies were used to identify the most abundant phlorotannins and sulfated polysaccharides in the extracts. Hydroethanolic extracts contained minerals (17 to 59% of the dry matter), proteins (4 to 9%), ethanol-insoluble polysaccharides (5.4 to 53%), nitrogen-free extract (NFE) (24.4 to 70.1%), lipids (5 to 12%), and TPC (2.6 to 47.7 g PGE per 100 g dry extract). S. compressa and E. arborea dry extracts presented the lowest ash content (26 and 17%, respectively) and had some of the highest phenolic (47.7 and 15.2 g PGE per 100 g extract), NFE (57.3 and 70.1%), and soluble polysaccharide (19.7 and 53%) contents. S. compressa and E. arborea extracts had the highest antioxidant activity (IC50 DPPH 1.7 and 3.7 mg mL−1; ORAC 0.817 and 0.801 mmol Trolox equivalent/g extract) and the highest α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory capacities (IC50 940 and 1152 μg mL−1 against α-amylase and 194 and 647 μg mL−1 against α-glucosidase). The most abundant phlorotannins identified in the extracts were phloretol, fucophloroethol, and two- and three-phloroglucinol unit (PGU) phlorotannins. Laminarin, fucoidan, and alginate were among the sulfated polysaccharides identified in the extracts. The bioactivities of S. compressa and E. arborea extracts were mainly related with their contents of three PGU phlorotannins and sulfated polysaccharides (e.g., fucoidan, laminarin, and alginate). These results suggest S. compressa and E. arborea are potential candidates for food products and nutraceutical and pharmaceutical preparations, and as additives for diabetes management.

Concentrated agave sap (CAS) has gained popularity as an unrefined sweetener. It is obtained by boiling "aguamiel" that contains phytochemicals with diverse bioactivities. Saponins have been the most widely studied agave phytochemicals due to their cancer antiproliferative effect but their concentration may vary due to maturity of the agave plant and collection site. In this study, 18 CAS samples produced in different states of Mexico were analyzed using multivariate methods to determine which physicochemical or phytochemical parameters were responsible for variation. Additionally, extracts with different saponin profiles were tested to determine possible correlations with antiproliferative activity. Total soluble solids, pH, and water activity were similar to those reported for other agave sweeteners. Antioxidant capacity of samples was correlated to browning index. Eleven steroidal saponins were found in CAS samples and they were the main source of variability. Magueyoside B, a kammogenin tetraglycoside, was the most abundant saponin in all samples. With respect to bioactivity, multivariate analysis indicated that magueyoside B and a gentrogenin tetraglycoside were compounds strongly related with bioactivity. CAS from Hidalgo, Puebla, and Veracruz had higher concentration of magueyoside B than from the other kamogenin tetraglycoside found in the samples from other Mexican states. These results could be used as a first approach to characterize and standardize CAS to validate the potential health benefits derived from its consumption.

Sap from agave plants (“aguamiel”) is traditionally consumed in Mexico as a fresh beverage, fermented or concentrated. Concentrated agave sap (CAS) is used as a sweetener but, due to heating, a brown color develops and intensifies during storage. Browning varies among CAS batches and this work was focused on its correlation with the chemical composition changes observed during 20 weeks of storage. The browning index (BI), measured as the optical density at 490 nm (OD 490 nm ) per gram of sample, increased 54.4% in the batch that initially had 57 OD 490 nm /g but in the other two batches that had a lower BI, the increase was less than 26.1%. Antioxidant capacity only increased in the batch with the highest BI going from 18 to 23 Trolox equivalent μmol/g dry weight. Saponin content was different in the three batches (224.2–434.7 protodioscin equivalents/gram dry weight) but did not change after 20 weeks of storage. Browning index and antioxidant capacity were negatively correlated with free amino acid concentration, particularly serine, phenylalanine and lysine decreased 29.4, 50 and 30%, respectively. Browning was positively correlated to furosine, an early Maillard reaction derivative of lysine previously reported as a free radical scavenger.

Separation of potentially bioactive components from foods and plant extracts is one of the main challenges for their study. Centrifugal partition chromatography has been a successful technique for the screening and identification of molecules with bioactive potential, such as steroidal saponins. Agave is a source of steroidal saponins with anticancer potential, though the activity of these compounds in concentrated agave sap has not been yet explored. In this study, fast centrifugal partition chromatography (FCPC) was used coupled with in vitro tests on HT-29 cells as a screening procedure to identify apoptotic saponins from an acetonic extract of concentrated agave sap. The three most bioactive fractions obtained by FCPC at partition coefficients between 0.23 and 0.4 contained steroidal saponins, predominantly magueyoside b. Flow cytometry analysis determined that the fraction rich in kammogenin and manogenin glycosides induced apoptosis, but when gentrogenin and hecogenin glycosides were also found in the fraction, a necrotic effect was observed. In conclusion, this study provides the evidence that steroidal saponins in concentrated agave sap were potential inductors of apoptosis and that it was possible to separate them using fast centrifugal partition chromatography.

Saponins have been correlated with the reduction of cancer cell growth and the apoptotic effect of agave sap concentrate. Empirical observations of this artisanal Mexican food have shown that fermentation occurs after agave sap is concentrated, but little is known about the microorganisms that survive after cooking, or their effects on saponins and other metabolites. The aim of this study was to evaluate the changes in metabolites found in agave (A. salmiana) sap after its fermentation with microorganisms isolated from agave sap concentrate, and demonstrate its potential use to enhance anticancer activity. Microorganisms were isolated by dilution plating and identified by 16S rRNA analysis. Isolates were used to ferment agave sap, and their corresponding butanolic extracts were compared with those that enhanced the cytotoxic activity on colon (Caco-2) and liver (Hep-G2) cancer cells. Metabolite changes were investigated by mass spectrometry-based metabolomics. Among 69 isolated microorganisms, the actinomycetes Arthrobacter globiformis and Gordonia sp. were used to analyze the metabolites, along with bioactivity changes. From the 939 ions that were mainly responsible for variation among fermented samples at 48 h, 96 h, and 192 h, four were correlated to anticancer activity. It was shown that magueyoside B, a kammogenin glycoside, was found at higher intensities in the samples fermented with Gordonia sp. that reduced Hep-G2 viability better than controls. These findings showed that microorganisms from agave sap concentrate change agave sap metabolites such as saponins. Butanolic extracts obtained after agave sap fermentation with Arthrobacter globiformis or Gordonia sp. increased the cancer cell growth inhibitory effect on colon or liver cancer cells, respectively.

The present study aimed to assess the effect of some pre-harvest fungicides commonly used in Capsicum fruit production on growth and ochratoxin A production of three Aspergillus species found in Capsicum powder. Aspergillus tubingensis, Aspergillus ochraceus and Aspergillus westerdijkiae, previously isolated from paprika and chilli, were inoculated on yeast extract sucrose agar and paprika extract agar supplemented with different fungicides at their recommended dosage rates, and incubated at 20 and 30 °C during 7 days. Radial growth was measured after 3, 5 and 7 days and ochratoxin A production was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection on day 7. Dodine 40% and mancozeb 80% were the most effective fungicides in inhibiting growth and ochratoxin A production, regardless of the fungal strain tested or temperature conditions. Whereas the application of fungicides could be very attractive in reducing the mycotoxigenic fungal load, it can also stimulate ochratoxin A production in some cases.

Agave has been used as a raw material for food and folklore medicinal purposes. Traditional processing in- volves the use of agave as a source of carbohydrate-rich syrups for direct use or as substrate to yield hydrolyzed fer- mented products and spirits. Agave plants can accumulate significant amounts of inulin, important molecule with prebi- otic activity. The agave plant has been used to feed ruminants in arid areas where drought episodes are prevalent. This plant is an important source of saponins, considered as antinutritional factors but also as anticancer, antifungal, and anti- inflammatory agents. Considering the low hydrosolubility of saponins, these compounds are not being recovered from the plant and alternative processes need to be devised. Agave also contains polyphenols with activities such as: anticancer, an- tioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antiparasitical, antimicrobial, prebiotics and coadjuvant in mineral absorption. The full phytochemical characterization of the sap, leaves and byproducts generated from the traditional food uses is needed to validate the beneficial effects of agave consumption and its potential use as a source of functional ingredients.

The objective of this study was to gain information about the toxigenic Aspergillus species present in a wide survey of retail samples of paprika and chilli collected in Spain. Detection of these mycotoxigenic species was performed with an optimized protocol for paprika and chilli which includes a set of species-specific PCR assays. Occurrence of toxigenic Aspergillus species was higher in paprika than in chilli samples (83.9% and 64.5%, respectively). Paprika showed also the highest percentage of co-occurrence of two or more different species (43.6%) in comparison with chilli (35.5%). The most common aspergilli were Aspergillus niger aggregate (67.7%), followed by Aspergillus flavus (49.5%). Aspergillus carbonarius, Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus steynii were detected at lower frequency (1.1%). The high co-occurrence of Aspergillus species able to produce ochratoxin A and aflatoxins, particularly in paprika, suggested the need of a more efficient control during processing and storage to reduce fungal contamination, and additional legislation to consider the simultaneous presence of both toxins in these matrices.

The phenolic, flavonoid, and antioxidant contents of methanol extracts of nine samples of Mexican cactus ( Opuntia spp.) cladodes processed into flours were studied. Opuntia undulata contained the highest amount of phenols [905.08 ± 64.51 μg of gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g]. The oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) of the cladode flour extracts indicated that Opuntia robusta var. Gavia [738.8 ± 89.9 μmol of Trolox equivalents (TE)/g] contained the highest antioxidant capacity. ORAC values significantly correlated to total phenols but not to flavonoid contents and were comparable to cranberries and blackberries. Glycosidic forms of isorhamnetin and kaempferol were identified via high-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array (HPLC-PDA) and HPLC-mass spectrometry (MS), with isorhamnetin being the most abundant flavonol in all samples, except for Opuntia lindheimeri . The effectiveness of acid hydrolysis varied among species because of the different flavonol profiles. For some varieties, the triglycosidic forms were partially acid-hydrolyzed, giving an increase in the content of diglycosides. Optimization of hydrolysis for each species is required to estimate the total amount of each flavonol.

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of some pre-harvest fungicides on growth and aflatoxin (AF) production of three Aspergillus flavus strains found in Capsicum powder. Each isolate, previously isolated from paprika, chilli and smoked paprika, was inoculated on yeast extract sucrose agar and on a 3% paprika extract agar medium supplemented with different fungicides and incubated at 20 and 30°C during 7 days. Growth measurements were obtained on days 3, 5 and 7, and the AF production was determined on day 7. The significance of the effects of the factors (strain, medium, temperature, time and fungicides) and their interaction over colony diameter and AF production was determined. Temperature constrained the effectiveness of fungicides in reducing growth, the fungicides being most effective at 20°C. The efficacy of the fungicides over AF production depended on the medium used and temperature. The most effective fungicides in inhibiting growth and AF production, regardless of the strain tested or applied conditions, were tebuconazole 25% and mancozeb 80% applied at a concentration of 0.75 and 3.5 g l(-1), respectively. Care should thus be taken in the choice of a suitable fungicide because their effectiveness may depend on intra-specific variation and temperature. Moreover, it is necessary to take into account that the most efficient fungicide in reducing growth is not always the best choice for pre-harvest treatments because it may promote AF production. Thus, the best fungicide is the one that can simultaneous prevent growth and AF production.

The aim of this study was to determine the co-occurrence of aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA) and zearalenone (ZEA) in paprika and chilli samples purchased in Spain, using HPLC with fluorescence detection. The occurrence of mycotoxin in 64 paprika samples was 59% for AFs, 98% for OTA and 39% for ZEA, whereas in the 35 chilli samples, the contamination was 40% for AFs, 100% for OTA and 46% for ZEA. None of the samples had AFs levels higher than the legally allowable limits. Regarding the co-occurrence of mycotoxins, 75% of paprika samples and 65% of chilli samples contained more than one mycotoxin. Chilli samples generally had lower concentrations of AFB1, AFB2, total AFs and OTA than had paprika samples. The high incidence of OTA contamination suggests that additional legislation may be required to for these kinds of spices.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to screen the multicontamination by mycotoxins in a wide variety of aromatic and/or medicinal herb samples collected in Spain. Mycotoxins studied were aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2 toxin (T-2), citrinin and fumonisins (FBs). Mycotoxins were analysed by ELISA after a clean-up step with multifunctional columns (AFs, ZEA, DON, FBs and T-2) or polyamide column (citrinin). RESULTS: Of the 84 samples analysed 99% were contaminated with T-2, 98% with ZEA, 96% with AFs, 63% with OTA, 62% with DON, 61% with citrinin and 13% with FBs. Nearly 87% of samples contained four or more mycotoxins simultaneously, being AFs, T-2 and ZEA the mycotoxins co-existing in almost every sample. 100% of the samples in our study were multicontaminated. CONCLUSION: This study shows that this kind of commodity could be an important source of mycotoxin contamination and, in general, this contamination is not limited to only one group of mycotoxins. Mycotoxin contamination on artichoke immature florets, boldus leaves, burdock leaves, dandelion plant, frangula bark, ginkgo leaves, lemon verbena leaves, olive leaves, red tea leaves, ribgrass leaves, St Mary's thistle seeds, spearmint leaves, star anise fruit, vervain and white tea leaves has been described for the first time. Finally, this is the first report on DON and T-2 presence in herbs. No study of this kind has been previously developed in Spain. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry

Owing to their usual conditions of production in countries with warm and humid climates and to poor storage conditions, products derived from Capsicum sp. are susceptible to fungal contamination and development, which can lead to the accumulation of mycotoxins in these foods. Thus, products as chilli or paprika can be contaminated with fungal toxins, such as aflatoxins, ochratoxins and other mycotoxins, which pose a serious risk to public health. This study reviews the main aspects regarding mycotoxin contamination of Capsicum, in the context of the importance of this product in a global market and approaches the effect of processing on final contamination of foods, as well as reviews the analytical methodology commonly employed in fungal and mycotoxin analysis in these types of products.

Steroidal saponins have shown beneficial health effects. Agave spp. leaves and rhizomes are sources of these compounds, but their presence has not been reported in the aguamiel. Aguamiel is the sweet edible sap from mature agave, and its quality is influenced by the plant ripening stage. The purpose of this research was to identify and quantitate saponins in aguamiel from Agave americana and Agave salmiana at two ripening stages. Saponins and sapogenins were identified with HPLC/ESI-MS/TOF and quantitated with HPLC/ELSD. Results proved the presence of saponins derived from kammogenin, manogenin, gentrogenin, and hecogenin. The saponin content in aguamiel from immature A. salmiana was 2-fold higher (478.3 protodioscin equivalents (PE) μg/g aguamiel (DM)) compared with A. americana (179.0 PE μg/g aguamiel (DM)). In both species, saponin content decreased when plants reached sexual maturity. This should be considered before evaluating the effects of Agave spp. as a source of bioactive saponins.

Biodegradable polydioxanone stents were developed for the treatment of refractory benign esophageal strictures but have been suggested as a new therapeutic option for intestinal strictures. The primary advantage of biodegradable stents over self-expandable metallic stents is that removal is not required. There are, however, few data available on their use in the small or large bowel. We herein describe the case of a 33-year-old patient with long-standing Crohn's disease (CD) who developed a fibrotic stricture of the sigmoid too long to be amenable to balloon dilation. The use of a biodegradable polydioxanone stent was chosen to avoid surgery. Combined endoscopic and fluoroscopic placement of the stent was technically simple, safe and clinically successful, and no recurrence of obstructive symptoms occurred during a 16-mo follow-up. Further studies are needed to evaluate the long-term efficacy and safety of biodegradable stents in the treatment of intestinal strictures, particularly in the context of CD.

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of a carotenoid mixture (Capsantal FS-30-NT), containing capsanthin and capsorubin, on growth and aflatoxins (AF) production of AF-producing Aspergillus flavus isolates. Each isolate, previously isolated from paprika and chilli, was inoculated on Czapek Yeast extract Agar (CYA) medium supplemented with different amounts of capsantal (0–1%) and incubated at 10, 15 and 25 °C during 21 days. Growth rates and lag phases were obtained, and AF production was determined at 7, 14 and 21 days. None of the isolates grew at 10 °C and one isolate (UdLTA 3.193) hardly grew at 15 °C. Capsantal addition had no effect over lag phases and growth rates at 15 °C. At 25 °C capsantal reduced growth rates and increased lag phases. However, the effect of capsantal on AF production was inconclusive, because it depended on temperature or time, and most of the times it was not significant. Low temperature has been a crucial factor in AF production, regardless of the capsantal concentration tested. Industrial storage temperature for paprika and chilli use to be approximately 10 °C, so if this temperature is maintained mould growth and AF production should be prevented.

Background: Fatalities resulting from paraquat (PQ) self-poisonings represent a major burden of this herbicide. Specific therapeutic approaches have been followed to interrupt its toxic pathway, namely decontamination measures to prevent PQ absorption and to increase its excretion from organism, as well as the administration of anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive drugs. Until now, none of the postmortem studies resulting from human PQ poisonings have assessed the relationship of these therapeutic measures with PQ toxicokinetics and related histopathological lesions, these being the aims of the present study. Methodology/principal findings: For that purpose, during 2008, we collected human fluids and tissues from five forensic autopsies following fatal PQ poisonings. PQ levels were measured by gas chromatography-ion trap mass spectrometry. Structural inflammatory lesions were evaluated by histological and immunohistochemistry analysis. The samples of cardiac blood, urine, gastric and duodenal wall, liver, lung, kidney, heart and diaphragm, showed quantifiable levels of PQ even at 6 days post-intoxication. Structural analysis showed diffused necrotic areas, intense macrophage activation and leukocyte infiltration in all analyzed tissues. By immunohistochemistry it was possible to observe a strong nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-kappaB) activation and excessive collagen deposition. Conclusions/significance: Considering the observed PQ levels in all analyzed tissues and the expressive inflammatory reaction that ultimately leads to fibrosis, we conclude that the therapeutic protocol usually performed needs to be reviewed, in order to increase the efficacy of PQ elimination from the body as well as to diminish the inflammatory process. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion