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African woodlands form a major part of the tropical grassy biome and support the livelihoods of millions of rural and urban people. Charcoal production in particular is a major economic activity, but its impact on other ecosystem services is little studied. To address this, our study collected biophysical and social datasets, which were combined in ecological production functions, to assess ecosystem service provision and its change under different charcoal production scenarios in Gaza Province, southern Mozambique. We found that villages with longer histories of charcoal production had experienced declines in wood suitable for charcoal, firewood and construction, and tended to have lower perceived availabilities of these services. Scenarios of future charcoal impacts indicated that firewood and woody construction services were likely to trade-off with charcoal production. However, even under the most extreme charcoal scenario, these services were not completely lost. Other provisioning services, such as wild food, medicinal plants and grass, were largely unaffected by charcoal production. To reduce the future impacts of charcoal production, producers must avoid increased intensification of charcoal extraction by avoiding the expansion of species and sizes of trees used for charcoal production. This is a major challenge to land managers and policymakers in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reductions in deforestation and forest degradation are advocated as a means to mitigate climate change. The formulation and implementation of policies to achieve such reductions requires an understanding of current and historic land-use change and associated greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, it is often proposed that any reduction in emissions be measured against a reference scenario that describes future land-use in the absence of intervention. However, the information needed to progress this agenda is rarely available, as robust data on the extent and causes of land-use change, and the associated changes in carbon stocks, are sparse, particularly in African woodlands. Here we present a novel method for obtaining such information by combining data from radar remote sensing and ground surveys with a simple aspatial model. Using this approach we quantify changes in woody biomass and investigate the land-use activities that caused these changes in a 7500 km 2 area of Manica province, Mozambique. We use the data to construct a model linking the activities causing biomass loss to hypothesised drivers, allowing the definition of future scenarios. Within the study area, biomass was lost at a rate of 2.8 ± 1.9% per year, with stocks changing from 19.4 ± 0.9 TgC in 2007 to 17.6 ± 0.9 TgC in 2010. Small-scale agriculture was the direct cause of 46 ± 17% of the total biomass loss, followed in magnitude by construction and miscellaneous activities (24 ± 11%), charcoal production (18 ± 9%), logging (9 ± 5%) and commercial agriculture (3 ± 2%). Uncertainties remain on the biomass accumulated by regrowing vegetation. Extrapolating into the future, a scenario that includes projected population growth shows 41% of biomass being lost from 2010 to 2020 (a loss of 7.2 TgC). A scenario of intensive policy interventions gives reduced losses of 3.8 TgC by factoring in improvements in crop yields, charcoal production efficiency, and sustainable timber harvesting. Our case study demonstrates the importance of low intensity losses of biomass in African woodlands, and highlights the broad range of activities that will need to be addressed to develop locally appropriate mitigation actions. The simple modelling framework allows for the transparent creation of scenarios in data sparse areas, which could be used as local or national reference emissions levels under REDD+. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Rural charcoal producers were heterogeneous in production scales and demographic characteristics. • The size of the urban market affects both the type of rural producer and their scales of production. • Rural producers were highly dependent on charcoal income, contributing 38–95% of total gross household income. • Small-scale producers were proportionally the most dependent on charcoal income. • The existence of households 'trapped' in low production may be a consequence of larger urban markets. Abstract Sub-Saharan Africa's charcoal sector is rarely considered a mechanism for rural development or poverty alleviation; instead, current regulations often marginalise rural producers. The development of a sustainable sector, that does not further marginalise rural populations, is restricted by limited understanding of these stakeholders. We assess the heterogeneity of rural producers supplying two differentially sized urban charcoal markets in Mozambique. Drawing on data from 767 household surveys, our findings suggest that the size of the urban market affects the type of rural producer and their scales of production. Overall household income of producers supplying the larger urban market were proportionally more dependent on charcoal for income generation; small-scale producers in particular relied most on charcoal income, contributing >95% of household incomes. In contrast, producers supplying the smaller market had more diversified incomes, and were thus less dependent on charcoal income. Larger-scale producers were generally wealthier; their absolute incomes were higher and they were proportionally the least dependent on charcoal income. Further findings suggest that rural charcoal production was not necessarily the domain of the poorest of the poor and the existence of producers trapped in small-scale production may be a consequence of larger urban markets, rather than an intrinsic characteristic of the sector. Predicted growth of smaller urban areas and associated higher demand for charcoal will provide substantial opportunities for rural income generation, most likely leading to shifts in producers and production scales. Rather than transferring existing formal approaches, which marginalise rural stakeholders, small urban areas provide opportunities to develop equitable production systems, with potential to deliver sustainable energy and rural development. The heterogeneity of rural producers calls for better-targeted interventions that incorporate the importance of charcoal production for rural livelihoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Charcoal is an important source of energy and income for millions of people in Africa. Its production often drives forest degradation and deforestation which have impacts on the local people that remain poorly understood. We present a novel methodology for analysing the contribution of woodland ecosystem services (ES) to rural well-being and poverty alleviation, which takes into account access mechanisms to ES, trade-offs between ES, and human response options. Using a participatory approach, a set of land use change scenarios were translated into a probabilistic model that integrates biophysical and social data. Our findings suggest that in highly forested areas woodland degradation does not have a critical impact on the local use of the three ES studied: charcoal, firewood and grass. Social factors show the largest impact on the quantity of charcoal produced, e.g. female-headed households experience the greatest barriers to access charcoal production. Participating in forest associations and diversifying income activities lead to greater charcoal production. Results show that charcoal production increases some aspects of well-being (e.g. household assets), but does not decrease acute multidimensional poverty. Great efforts are required to reach a charcoal production system that alleviates poverty, improves environmental sustainability, and provides a reliable charcoal supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]