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Martes is one of the most widely spread genera and probably has the longest evolutionary history among the living Carnivora, yet its fossil record is incomplete, especially those related to the crown group of Martes. Here we describe a fossil species, Martes crassidens sp. nov. from the Jinyuan Cave, Luotuo Hill, Dalian Puwan Economic Zone, Liaoning Province in northeastern China. The materials were found from the lower deposits belonging to the early-middle Early Pleistocene. Our morphological comparison, morphometric and morphotype analyses suggest the fossil species shows a clear affinity to the Holarctic marten group (here referred to HMG), i.e. Martes martes, Martes zibellina, Martes melampus, Martes americana, in having robust dentition, enlarged P4 protocone and M1 inner lobe. It also has unique characters, e.g. relatively large body size, very robust carnassial, high crowned m1 and relatively short talonid, which is different from any living and known fossil species and probably suggests a durophagous dietary behavior. Martes crassidens represents so far the earliest record of the HMG, and provides evidence for the chronological framework of the crown marten diversification.

Chronological sequences of Quaternary terrestrial mammalian faunas can provide important information about the evolutionary history of mammals, regional biostratigraphy and paleoenvironmental changes. Here we report the results of studies of a thick, nearly-continuous sedimentary sequence from Jinyuan Cave, in Liaoning Province, northeast China; the sequences contains four mammalian faunas ranging in age from the Late Pliocene to the late Middle Pleistocene. Detailed paleomagnetic and U-series age determinations date the upper unit of the sedimentary sequence to ~2.2–0.3 Ma. The results suggest that cave development and infilling were closely associated with the tectonic evolution of the Bohai Basin, including the subsidence of the basin and the uplift of the surrounding mountains, such as Luotuo Hill. Together with the large mammalian faunas from both south and north China, we suggest that these mammalian faunas were smaller in size and lower in species diversity during the Middle Pleistocene Transition (MPT) (1.2–0.7 Ma) than in the earlier and later Pleistocene. This indicates that major climatic variations during the MPT in north China may have reduced their taxonomic abundance and diversity. The extremely warm and wet interglacial climates that followed the MPT in monsoonal East Asia provided an ecological niche for the evolution and migration of these mammalian faunas, resulting in an increase in the numbers and diversity of mammals in East Asia.

The discovery of a fossil Equus skull in Jinyuan Cave, Luotuo Hill, Dalian, is reported herein. The specimen was identified as Equus qingyangensis, based on the complexity of morphological features, and is considered to be as young as 1.2 Ma. Combined with the new finding, the known specimens of E. qingyangensis were reviewed and compared with other stenonid horse species in Eurasia. A skull previously reported as E. teilhardi, unearthed in the Nihewan Basin, is revised as E. qingyangensis. The recorded locations of E. qingyangensis findings are Bajiazui, Nihewan (s. s.), and the Jinyuan Cave. According to paleomagnetic data, mammalian fauna correlations, and significant environmental events, the ages of the Bajiazui and Nihewan (s. s.) localities are considered to be 2.1–1.7 Ma and correspond with the late Villafranchian faunae in Europe. Thus, based on the records, the temporal range of E. qingyangensis is 2.1–1.2 Ma. With climate change and exposure of the Bering Strait, the occurrence of E. qingyangensis in China was a significant biotic event. E. qingyangensis and another gracile species, E. stenonis, appeared and dispersed throughout Eurasia, and wolf-like canids and the large hyenid Pachycrocuta emerged during this period. Considering the roles equid and canid species played, we propose that this Equus–Canis occurrence represented a substantial biotic event during a series of major environmental and ecological changes.

The first Episiphneus (Myospalacinae, Rodentia, Mammalia) fossils of the Late Pliocene from Northeast China are described here as E. dalianensis sp. nov., which were collected from the lowermost fossiliferous deposits from Jinyuan Cave of Luotuo Hill in Dalian, Liaoning Province. The new fossils include intact skull, mandibles and molars with roots. The skull is characterized by a flat occiput and the supra-occipital process cohering with the lambdoid crest; meanwhile distinctive dental features include rooted molars and anterior cap of m1 coated with enamel. The new species is morphologically distinct from those of the tribe Prosiphneini with convex occiput, as well as species of the tribe Mesosiphneini with occipital concavity; and should be referred to the genus Episiphneus of the trible Myospalacini. Episiphneus was previously represented by a single species, E. youngi, whose geographical distribution is restricted to North China during the Early Pleistocene, such as Zhoukoudian Locality18 (ZKD Loc.18), Beijing. The Jinyuan specimens are similar to E. youngi in cranial dome of both species bear flat occiput without interparietal, rooted hypsodont molars, and appreciably reduced M3/m3. Nonetheless, there are also differences in morphology between the new species and E. youngi, the type species of Episiphneus. For example, E. dalianensis sp. nov. is slightly smaller in size, with incisive foramen surrounded by premaxilla, and a well-developed 1st lingual reentrant angle (LRA1) on the M1. With relatively smaller size, rooted molars, thick enamel and developed enamel lakes formed by the reentrants, E. dalianensis sp. nov. is apparently more basal to Myospalax prosilurus and Myospalax psilurus. All the three species have the incisive foramen surrounded by premaxilla, the evident 1st lingual reentrant angle (LRA1) on the M1, obviously reduced M3/m3, and overlapping geographical distribution, suggesting that E. dalianensis sp. nov. represents a putative ancestor of the two others. As the first discovery of fossil Episiphneus from Northeast China, E. dalianensis sp. nov. is also the earliest and most primitive species of the genus. Its discovery has significant implications for reconstructing the origin, evolution and dispersal pattern of Myospalacinae in Northern China, as well as for discussing its palaeoecological variation.

Recently, rich fossiliferous deposits dated to the late Cenozoic have been discovered from Jinyuan Cave at Luotuo Hill, an extremely large-sized cave site situated within in the Dalian Puwan Economic Zone of Dalian Municipality, Liaoning Province in Northeast China. Abundant and diverse vertebrate fossils unearthed from different fossiliferous layers of Jinyuan Cave, a site of enormous size with a sedimentary thickness of over 40 m and its deposits can be roughly divided into three fossiliferous deposit units, altogether containing six fossiliferous layers belonging to different ages from the Late Pliocene to the Middle Pleistocene. Based on a combination of biostratigraphic and geochronological evidence, the fossil assemblages from Jinyuan Cave can be divided into three successive faunas that span the Late Cenozoic (ca. 3.60–0.35 Ma): the Wanghai fauna from upper faunal unit (Middle Pleistocene, 0.78–0.35 Ma), the Jinyuan fauna from middle-lower faunal unit (Early Pleistocene, 2.60–0.78 Ma) and the Luotuoshan fauna of the bottommost faunal unit (Late Pliocene, 3.6–2.6 Ma). The mammalian faunal evolution of Jinyuan Cave can be divided into four temporal stages during the late Cenozoic. The new discovered Jinyuan Cave provides a unique and nearly-continuous faunal and sedimentary sequence stretching from the Late Pliocene to the Middle Pleistocene, hugely significant for establishing the Quaternary Mammal Fauna Sequence of Northeast China for the first time based on a combination of biostratigraphy, geochronology, and for discussing the environmental background.

A large number of hominin fossil-bearing caves in South China have yielded evidence for the occupation of early modern humans during the Middle to Late Pleistocene. However, the geology of these caves and the paleoenvironmental context of human occupation remain poorly documented and understood. In this study, we obtained new ages yielded by MC-ICPMS uranium-series dating of speleothems from Zhiren Cave, Guangxi, where a partial early modern human mandible and 2 M have been recovered. The ages demonstrate that cave infilling of Zhiren Cave began at ~1 Ma, much earlier than the date previously suggested. Our dating results also suggest that fossils of anatomically modern human were deposited in Zhiren Cave during marine isotope stage (MIS) 6, between ~190 and ~130 ka, representing the oldest known anatomically modern human remains in East Asia. The cave's sedimentary processes and the paleoenvironmental changes were reconstructed based on detailed analyses of lithostratigraphy, grain-size, pollen assemblages and the chemical weathering intensity of the sediments inside Zhiren Cave. The results show that major climatic changes in the Middle Pleistocene led to the accelerated incision of local streams and the erosion of cave sediments by controlling the regional hydrological response during the Early to Middle Pleistocene. After ~300 ka, increased climatic contrasts between glacial and interglacial periods dominated the accumulation of sediments and the occupation of mammals and early modern humans in Zhiren Cave. Gradually desiccating climatic conditions and reduced forest cover during the penultimate glacial period (MIS 6) may have define a temporal window for the human occupation of Zhiren Cave, providing ideal environmental conditions. However, floodwater incursion and/or dense vegetation cover corresponding to a much warmer and wetter climate in the subsequent last interglacial (MIS 5) may have discouraged humans from further occupying Zhiren Cave.

The tribe Lyncodontini (Mammalia, Carnivora, Mustelidae) was widely distributed in Eurasia during the Plio-Pleistocene. In East Asia, only Eirictis and Oriensictis are known so far. Herein, we describe a new complete cranium of Lyncodontini from Layer 2 of Jinyuan cave of Luotuo Hill, Puwan area of Dalian, Liaoning Province in Northeast China and undertake detailed comparisons with related taxa. The specimen is similar to Oriensictis, especially Oriensictis melina in Locality 1 of Zhoukoudian in tooth morphology and represents the same species of the latter, but the cranial characters are strikingly similar to those of Enhydrictis galictoides from Sardinia. We therefore relegate Oriensictis to a subgenus of Enhydrictis as East Asian members of the clade in the Middle Pleistocene, whereas the subgenus Enhydrictis is endemic to Sardinia. The craniodental characters of E. melina are more derived than those of E. galictoides in many aspects, so it is unlikely to be a direct ancestor to E. galictoides. The Early Pleistocene Martellictis ardea from Saint Vallier probably represents the ancestor group of this genus. This clade immigrated along the Paratethys during the Late Villafranchian. Part of this metapopulation probably dispersed into East Asia during the late Early Pleistocene or early Middle Pleistocene along with other carnivores (e.g. Xenocyon sp. and Panthera youngi) during interglacial period, whereas others dispersed back to Europe during the Middle Pleistocene, as represented by the Sardinia population. The E. melina from Layer 2 of Luotuo Hill is morphologically more derived than the Middle Pleistocene E. nipponica from Japan, thus the age of Layer 2 is possibly not older than Middle Pleistocene.

Zhiren Cave in southern China is an important site for the study of the origin and the environmental background of early modern humans. The combination of Elephas kiangnanensis , Elephas maximus , and Megatapirus augustus , indicates an early representative of the typical Asian elephant fauna. Previous U-series dating of flowstone calcite has pinpointed an upper age limit for the fossils of about 100 ka. In order to achieve a better comprehension of the chronology of the modern human and contemporaneous faunal assemblage, paleomagnetic, stratigraphic, and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating methods have been applied to the cave sediments. Paleomagnetic analyses reveal that there is a reversed polarity excursion below the fossiliferous layer. This excursion can be regarded as the Blake excursion event, given the U-series ages of the overlying flowstone calcite, the OSL measurements, the virtual geomagnetic pole (VGP) path of the excursion, the two reverse polarity zones within this excursion event, and the characteristic of the fauna assemblage. The human remains and mammalian fauna assemblage can be bracketed to 116–106 ka. Application of OSL dating leads to erroneous ages, largely due to the uncertainty associated with the estimation on the dose rates.

New Carnivore remains associated with Gigantopithecus blacki are described from Yanliang Cave, Chongzuo, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, South China. New specimens of Megantereon have been identified as Megantereon microta sp. nov. based on the previously unknown characteristics, such as small overall size, p4 and m1 dental proportions, p3 with two separated roots and large P4 protocone. M. microta sp. nov. differs from Megantereon whitei from Africa mainly by the characters of p3 and lacking a p3–p4 diastema. Compared with other Megantereon species from China, M. microta sp. nov. is considered to be more primitive in dental characters, such as large P4 protocone, p3 with two separated roots, and short canine-p3 diastema. The Pachycrocuta licenti and Ursus thibetanus from Yanliang Cave are consistent with their appearance during the early Early Pleistocene in southern China. Combining the biostratigraphical and biochronological evidence, the Yanliang fauna can be best correlated with Baikong fauna in the same area, which is the early Early Pleistocene (∼2.0 Ma).

As one of the most important Quaternary mammalian faunas in southern China, the Gigantopithecus-Sinomastodon fauna has received much attention. The large-primate fossil teeth newly collected from Juyuan karst cave in Boyue Mountain, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of southern China, can be identified as Gigantopithecus blacki . The morphology and size of these G. blacki teeth differ from those of the middle Pleistocene Gigantopithecus teeth which hold evidently larger dental dimensions and more complex crenulations from Hejiang Cave also in Guangxi and Tham Khuyen Cave in Vietnam. However, the G. blacki teeth from Juyuan Cave are relatively similar to those from Early Pleistocene Mohui Cave and Liucheng Gigantopithecus Cave both in Guangxi, which suggests that the three cave sites have similar age. The Juyuan fauna associated with Gigantopithecus blacki , consisting of 45 mammalian species (such as Sinomastodon yangziensis , Ailuropoda wulingshanensis , Stegodon huananensis , and Rhinoceros fusuiensis ), is a typical Early Pleistocene Gigantopithecus-Sinomastodon fauna of southern China. The Juyuan fauna is mostly similar to Mohui fauna, also implying their contemporaneity. Paleomagnetic analyses demonstrate that the fossil-bearing sediments in Juyuan Cave are dominated by normal polarity. Combining the faunal analysis and magnetostratigraphic evidence, the Juyuan sediments can be best correlated with the Olduvai normal subchron, giving an estimated age of 1.8 Ma.

Gigantopithecus blacki was once a common primate during Early Pleistocene, distributed throughout southern China, but then it gradually declined with time and finally became extinct probably during Middle Pleistocene. Black Cave in Guangxi (the Zhuang Nationality Autonomous Region) was the first site yielding G. blacki teeth in-situ in 1956. It also produced numerous mammalian fossils belonging to the typical Middle Pleistocene Stegodon–Ailuropoda fauna from sediments overlying the G. blacki level. The present study carried out coupled ESR/U-series dating study of five Bovidae teeth from this palaeontological layer and obtained a weighted mean age of 383 ± 20 ka for this Stegodon–Ailuropoda fauna. This age estimate on fossil teeth is constrained by two 230 Th/U ages of 404 ± 24 ka and 382 ± 9 ka obtained on speleothems formed below and above the level of the Stegodon–Ailuropoda fauna. The Black Cave Stegodon–Ailuropoda fauna can be therefore correlated with MIS 11, and the remains of G. blacki should be older than 400 ka.

The Quaternary record of fossil snakes (Reptilia, Squamata) in Asia is extremely rare; any information is noteworthy. An articulated snake skeleton was recovered from the early Pleistocene (2.15–2....

Herein the new Perissodactyl fossils associated with Giantopithecus blacki recovered from Yanliang Cave, Guangxi of southern China were described as Hesperotherium sinense, Tapirus sanyuanensis and...

Dentognathic remains of Gigantopithecus blacki from the newly discovered Early Pleistocene locality of Yanliang Cave, Guangxi, South China are described. These include an incomplete mandible, only ...

In this paper we examine the change in the composition of the Pleistocene primate fauna in southern China based on about 3600 fossil teeth collected from 14 cave sites in Chongzuo area, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Although it is often difficult to identify the taxonomic position of isolated Pleistocene primate teeth, nine genera were provisionally identified: Homo , Gigantopithecus , Pongo and Nomascus (Hominoidea), Procynocephalus , Macaca , Rhinopithecus , Pygathrix , and Trachypithecus (Cercopithecoidea). Among these genera, all but Gigantopithecus and Procynocephalus are extant, some of which are not presently distributed in Chongzuo and its neighboring area. More than half of the primate specimens belong to Macaca , which probably includes three to five species, while other genera likely consist of single species. There is a possibility that some of the early macaque species may have been replaced by later members of the genus. All primate genera make their first appearance in the Early Pleistocene, seven of which likely survived until the Holocene in Chongzuo. The extinctions of Procynocephalus and Gigantopithecus are probably due to different factors. The former was likely adapted to cooler and drier environments, and distributed mainly in the area of relatively high latitude. The Early Pleistocene fossil record at Chongzuo is its southernmost occurrence and it may be the youngest record in eastern Eurasia. The latter was a common taxon during the Early Pleistocene, but it disappeared in the early Late Pleistocene. This was probably due to vegetational change, including the loss of their preferred diet, such as bamboo.

Gigantopithecus blacki is a typical member of the Stegodon–Ailuropoda faunal complex (sensu lato) that inhabited southern China or, more broadly, mainland Southeast Asia during the Early and Middle Pleistocene. Current evidence indicates that the giant ape became extinct during the Middle Pleistocene. Recently, new remains of G blacki and associated mammalian fossils have been unearthed from a karst cave site, Hejiang Cave, in Chongzuo City, Guangxi, South China. The age of the Gigantopithecus-bearing depositional unit is estimated to be 400–320 ka using 230Th–234U disequilibrium U-series dating of flowstone samples bracketing the deposits. These finds document the latest occurrence of Gigantopithecus and provide potential insights regarding its extinction. Comparisons of dental dimensions between the Hejiang G. blacki remains, more than four hundred isolated teeth from Early Pleistocene localities, and over ninety isolated teeth from local drugstores show that the Hejiang teeth are slightly larger in their buccolingual dimensions. In addition, the crowns of the three unerupted upper premolars differ from those of all of the other Gigantopithecus material in having more complex crenulations. The differences in dental dimensions and morphology are possibly reflective of dietary responses to environmental changes that eventually led to the extinction of Gigantopithecus.

More than seventy isolated teeth of fossil Pongo are reported from Baikong, Juyuan and Queque Caves in Chongzuo, Guangxi, southern China. This Early Pleistocene material dates from 2.0 to 1.0 Ma based on faunal correlations and paleomagnetic analyses. The teeth from Chongzuo are generally morphologically very similar to those of extant species of Pongo , but are much larger in size. All of the fossil specimens can be attributed to Pongo weidenreichi , which is a typical member of the Early and Middle Pleistocene fauna of southern China and Vietnam. The identification of more detailed species-specific characteristics of P. weidenreichi will require larger samples. In addition, many of the systematic problems associated with fossil Pongo remain unresolved, but a provisional taxonomic scheme is presented that better reflects our current understanding of species-level diversity. Five extinct species of Pongo are recognized: P. weidenreichi from the Early and Middle Pleistocene of China and the Middle Pleistocene of Vietnam, Pongo palaeosumatrensis from the Late Pleistocene of Sumatra, Pongo javensis from the Late Pleistocene of Java, Pongo duboisi from the Late Pleistocene of Sumatra, and Pongo devosi from the Late Pleistocene of China and Vietnam. P. weidenreichi , which is the earliest-known species of orang-utan, is replaced during the Late Pleistocene by a smaller species, P. devosi . Pongo becomes extinct in China during the Late Pleistocene, but may have survived in Vietnam and Cambodia into the Holocene. In island Southeast Asia, orang-utans were present on Java by at least the Middle Pleistocene and they continued into the Late Pleistocene as P. javensis . The Javan lineage of Pongo is more diminutive, at least dentally, than broadly contemporary species on mainland Asia, Sumatra and Borneo. Two species of Pongo are recognized from Late Pleistocene localities in the Padang Highlands of Sumatra. A relatively large species, P. duboisi , is known from Lida Ayer and Djambu, while a somewhat smaller species, P. palaeosumatrensis , is known from slightly younger deposits from Sibrambang. The latter two taxa possibly represent time-successive members of the Pongo abelii lineage or are members of an older lineage of Pongo , broadly distributed across Sundaland, that was the sister taxon of Pongo pygmaeus and P. abelii . As noted by previous researchers, the fossil record provides evidence of a trend in Pongo to reduce the size of its dentition during the Pleistocene, but this overall trend was apparently influenced by various extrinsic factors that resulted in spatio-temporal heterogeneity in dental size.

Leptobos (Artiodactyla, Bovidae, Bovini) was a bovine occupying mid-latitudes of Europe east through to eastern China. A number of species of Leptobos are described with the greatest number occupying southern Europe. Here we report on Leptobos crassus, from Renzidong Cave, Anhui, China, and its relation to other species. There is an established variation in size amongst the various species, with Leptobos furtivus the smallest (slightest). The overall most robust is L. crassus; however, there is overlap in largeness of this species with Leptobos etruscus and the inadequately-understood Leptobos bravardi. Leptobos existed only during the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene, thus it is a diagnostic taxon for the Villafranchian-Nihewanian land mammal ages of Europe and China. Leptobos occupied more open habitats and filled a predominantly grazing niche within the environment, although in eastern China (Renzidong Cave) it may have lived in mixed forested grassland. The distribution and existence of Leptobos in greater Eurasia drastically alters with the climatic and environmental deterioration that takes place at the end of the Early Pleistocene; its demise seems tied to this cooling event that launches into the glacial episodes.

The shift from hunting and gathering to farming is one of the most important transitions in human history. Pig domestication has long been an issue of interest in archaeology and genetics. As the real-time carrier of the genetic information for dead or extinct animals, ancient DNA provides continuous molecular evidence for tracing the history of domestication. We collected 30 Late Pleistocene wild boar fossils from three caves in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (Guangxi ZAR), Southern China. Through the use of the fragmented ancient DNA sequences and the homologous sequences of both domestic pigs and wild boars across Asia and Europe, we reconstructed phylogenetic trees of the pig family. The results show that most wild boar individuals from Guangxi have a closer phylogenetic relationship to Asian pigs than European ones. The data provide additional geographic and temporal evidence for a genetic continuity between ancient Chinese wild boars and the domestic pigs. Moreover, we obtained preliminary evidence for genetic similarity between the ancient wild boar in Guangxi and the European pigs. We suggest that further ancient DNA investigation of the Chinese wild boar samples is essential for revealing the historical process of pig domestication.

Here is provided the first description of Pleistocene lizards recovered from five caves (Baikong, Juyuan, Queque, Sanhe, and Zhiren) in Chongzuo, Zuo River area of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, southern China. Lizard remains reported here come from faunas that include Gigantopithecus blacki or Homo sapiens dating from the Early to Late Pleistocene with age-range estimates from 2.0 Ma to 111 ka. The recovery of agamids (Agamidae), skinks (Scincidae), a large species of Gekko, and smaller forms of gekkonids (Gekkonidae) is of interest in that the diversity of lizards for the caves is high given the extremely small sample size from the deposits. The description of cf. Draco reported here is the first indication of the possible occurrence of this genus in the Pleistocene record. Southern China and the adjacent territories in Vietnam and Laos have a diverse lizard fauna today. Cave deposits with established chronologies in the local karst regions such as recovered in Chongzuo, can help record the diversity within the local lizard community through time. Although the fossil lizards reported here appear to represent mammalian prey remains (highly fragmented), caves that contain owl roost pellet deposits might represent a more diverse squamate community with the additional advantage of having specimens that are not as fragmented. Because a Pleistocene-age lizard record does occur in the caves reported here, in all likelihood equivalent deposits should occur in the numerous caves throughout southern China and Southeast Asia.

Abundant dental fossils of Rhinoceros, associated with Gigantopithecus blacki from the early Early Pleistocene Yanliang Cave deposits in Fusui County, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of southern China, are described as Rhinoceros fusuiensis sp. nov. (Rhinocerotidae, Perissodactyla, Mammalia). The new species is morphologically more similar to the extant species Rhinoceros sondaicus (Javan rhinoceros) than to other species of the genus, but differs from R. sondaicus in bearing a slightly smaller size, a complete protoloph on P2 after heavily worn, a better developed crochet which is close to the protoloph, and a more curved ectoloph. Rhinoceros fusuiensis sp. nov. is considered as the potential ancestor of the living R. sondaicus and the common element of the Early Pleistocene Gigantopithecus-Sinomastodon fauna in southern China. The Rhinoceros remains from other Early Pleistocene sites (e.g., Longgupo Cave and Mohui Cave in southern China and Irrawaddy sediments in Myanmar) are also assigned into the new species. The discovery of R. fusuiensis sp. nov. provides important information on Quaternary biostratigraphy in southern China, as well as implicating southern China as a significant evolutionary and zoogeographic center for Rhinoceros during the Early Pleistocene.

Twenty-eight (28) isolated orangutan fossil teeth are reported in this paper, which are newly discovered from Sanhe Cave in Chongzuo Ecological Park of Guangxi in southern China. The geological age is Early Pleistocene, approximately 1.2 Ma, based on the mammal fauna and paleomagnetic stratigraphy. The tooth crown areas are within the range of extant orangutans and subfossil orangutans from Indonesia. However, by comparing the distribution of the crown areas, the sample from Sanhe has crown areas that fall above the mean value of extant orangutans and Holocene orangutans. Morphological differences between the Sanhe, subfossil and extant orangutans are difficult to discern, although the occlusal wrinkles of the postcanine teeth of the fossil orangutans from Sanhe are less numerous but coarser than that of extant orangutans. The fossil orangutans from Sanhe are smaller than those from other caves from Chongzuo Ecological Park, and are slightly larger than samples from Mulanshan Cave. We conclude that the fossil orangutan teeth from the Early Pleistocene of Sanhe Cave are provisionally classified as Pongo pygmaeus weidenreichi, and better evidence is needed to interpret the evolution and taxonomy of the fossil orangutans in southern China.

As one of the largest primates that ever lived, the finding of Gigantopithecus blacki mainly occurs in southern China during the Early and Middle Pleistocene. Previous stable carbon isotope analysis of G. blacki teeth showed that it relied on C3–based foods in the Early Pleistocene. However, the deficiency of preservation assessment, other ape samples, and oxygen isotope data may hinder the dietary interpretation and understanding the dietary preference of G. blacki compared to human relative apes. In this study, XRD and FTIR were used to assess the crystallinity variation of apatite in fossil enamel of G. blacki and animals during the Early Pleistocene from Sanhe Cave, Chongzuo, Guangxi, South China. The results indicated that the carbonate group in enamel apatite still retained its biogenic signature although the crystallinity was enhanced during fossilization. The carbon isotope values of all fossil animals suggest that they consumed C3–based foods. Most importantly, the oxygen isotope values of all animal fossils show that G. blacki as well as Pongo was engaged in mixed–feeding strategy, perhaps relying on grasses, plant leaves, stems or possible roots that are depleted in 18O. Moreover, lower oxygen isotope values of G. blacki than those from Pongo are observed, suggesting that G. blacki preferred plant roots or stems with lower δ18O values.

The Gigantopithecus fauna, the most important mammalian fauna during the Early Pleistocene in southern China, was usually excavated from cave or fissure deposits without precise age constraints. Here we present new magnetostratigraphy results for four cave sedimentary sequences in Chongzuo, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of southern China, from the highest and oldest to the lowest and youngest including Baikong Cave, Juyuan Cave, Sanhe Cave and Queque Cave. Magnetite was identified as the major carrier of characteristic remnant magnetizations in the cave deposits. Correlation to the geomagnetic polarity time scale was achieved by combining magnetostratigraphic and biochronologic data. Our correlation suggests that the cave sedimentary sequences span from the pre-Olduvai Matuyama chron to the Jaramillo subchron. The combined magneto-biochronology leads to the establishment of a chronological framework for the Early Pleistocene Gigantopithecus faunas in Chongzuo area. The Gigantopithecus faunal succession of Early Pleistocene were assigned to estimated ages of ∼2.0 Ma (Baikong Cave), ∼1.8 Ma (Juyuan Cave), ∼1.2 Ma (Sanhe Cave) and ∼1.0 Ma (Queque Cave), respectively. The river incision rate in Chongzuo area during this time span was estimated to be ∼14 mm/ky.

Sinomastodon (Proboscidea, Mammalia) is a unique brevirostrine trilophodont gomphotheriid from Eurasia, which mainly occurs in China during the Plio-Pleistocene. Although much is known about adult individuals, the morphology of juveniles of this taxon is still poorly understood due to the scarcity of pertinent fossils. The present contribution represents the first detailed systematic study of the mandible and deciduous dentition of juvenile individuals of Sinomastodon jiangnanensis from the early Early Pleistocene (2.14–2.15 Ma) Renzidong Cave of eastern China. Based on morphological comparisons, the Renzidong juvenile mandible bears, on one hand, the transitional characteristics between the typical long-jawed trilophodont and elephantoid proboscideans, and, on the other hand, more primitive features than adult mandibles of Sinomastodon . This study of juvenile individuals of S. jiangnanensis provides new information to enhance the diagnosis of S. jiangnanensis , and confirms the validity of the species. It also provides evidence to show that the morphological transition of genus Sinomastodon from Neogene to Quaternary is mirrored in adult and juvenile individuals.

Since 2004, five new early Pleistocene cave sites with Gigantopithecus blacki and other fossil mammals have been discovered in the Chongzuo, Zuojiang River area, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (Guangxi ZAR), South China. These sites include Baikong Cave of Liyu Mountain, Juyuan Cave of Boyue Mountain, Sanhe and Queque Caves of Wuming Mountain, and Wuming Cave of Mulan Mountain. The present study provides a preliminary account of these newly discovered Gigantopithecus faunas, and discusses their taxonomic composition, evolutionary trends and chronology based on recent biostratigraphic and geochronological studies. Combining faunal and paleomagnetic data, the Gigantopithecus faunas from the Zuojiang River area can be divided into three temporal stages during the early Pleistocene. The early stage (2.6–1.8 Ma) is represented by the Baikong and Boyue faunas, which include some Neogene relics (e.g., Sinomastodon, Hesperotherium, Dicoryphochoerus, Dorcabune and Cervavitus) and several species that make their first appearance during the Pleistocene (e.g., Sinicuon dubius, Pachycrocuta licenti, Ailuropoda microta, Sinomastodon jiangnanensis, Stegodon huananensis and Tapirus sanyuanensis). The middle stage (1.8–1.2 Ma) is represented by the Sanhe fauna, which is characterized by the appearance of Ailuropoda wulingshanensis, Cuon antiquus, and Tapirus sinensis. The late stage (1.2–0.8 Ma) is represented by the Queque fauna, which is characterized by a marked decrease in Neogene relics and the appearance of a few species that are more typical of the middle Pleistocene (e.g., Ailuropoda baconi and Stegodon orientalis). Evolutionary trends in the early Pleistocene Gigantopithecus faunas include a gradual increase in dental size in some of the typical taxa, such as G. blacki, Ailuropoda and Tapirus, and the successive turnover of representative species, such as A. microta – A. wulingshanensis – A. baconi. Thus far, Eleven G. blacki sites of early Pleistocene age have been recorded in southern China, and these are primarily concentrated in Guangxi ZAR, where more than 70% of early Pleistocene G. blacki cave sites are known. Given this temporal and geographic distribution it is possible to infer that Guangxi ZAR represents an important early evolutionary and zoogeographic center for G. blacki.

A new leporid species, Nesolagus sinensis sp. nov., is described here representing the only leporid member of the Early Pleistocene Gigantopithecus fauna from Sanhe Cave, Chongzuo, Guangxi, South China and also the first fossil taxon of the Southeast Asian genus Nesolagus. Compared with two extant Nesolagus species from Indonesia and Vietnam and other related leprids, the new species has a relatively small size and an extraordinarily weak anterior internal reentrant (AIR) on p3, but it also retains the simplified paedomorphic pattern during the ontogenetic process as in extant species, which suggests that the new species is more primitive than and probably directly ancestral to extant Nesolagus species. The new species seems closely related to Alilepus longisinuosus from the Late Miocene strata of Lufeng, Yunnan, and probably diverged from a leporid similar to its ancestral form. It also indicates that Nesolagus originated in Southwest China.

The first Diplothrix (Muridae, Rodentia) fossils of the early Early Pleistocene are described as D. yangziensis sp. nov., which were collected from the Renzidong Cave deposits in Anhui Province, Eastern China. Diplothrix was previously represented by a single species, D. legata, whose geographical distribution during the Late Pleistocene is restricted to the Ryukyu Islands, Japan. With straight chevrons on M1, distinct t3 and t9 on upper molars, primitive M3, mlc on m1, and developed a-lab on m2 and m3, the new species is morphologically distinct from other large murids in East Asia, and should belong to the genus Diplothrix. There are also differences in molar morphology between the new species and D. legata, the type species of Diplothrix, as well as other known fossils. For example, D. yangziensis sp. nov. has a smaller size, a more elongated crown, developed precingulum and pc on M1, more primitive M3, weaker mlc and more primitive pc on m1, and stronger plc and pc on m3. In short, Diplothrix yangziensis sp. nov. is evidently more primitive than D. legata, suggesting that the former is likely the ancestor of the latter. Diplothrix yangziensis sp. nov. is the first discovery of the genus outside the Ryukyu Islands, Japan and is also the earliest and most primitive species of the genus in Eurasia. Its discovery has significant implications for reconstructing the evolution and dispersal pattern of Diplothrix, as well as for discussing its palaeoecological variation.

Fossil records indicate orangutan-like hominoids have been widely distributed in south China during Pleistocene, although currently only surviving in the tropical forests of Kalimantan and Sumatra in Indonesia. This paper describes the recently discovered hominoid fossil teeth from human site of Mulanshan cave in Chongzuo of Guangxi, whose geological age is the Late Pleistocene, about 11000 yeas age based on associated mammal fauna and U-series dating. Compared with those of modern and subfossil orangutans from Indonesia, other fossil great apes from China, the hominoid teeth from Mulanshan cave are orangutan-like, but show somehow different from Indonesia’s orangutans, the average sizes of cheek teeth larger and occlusal enamel wrinkles less and simpler. They are classified temporarily as the subspecies of Pongo pygmaeus weidenreichi. Concerning the variations of morphological features and dental sizes of orangutan-like teeth from southern China and neighboring northern Vietnam, different subspecies or species or genus possibly, but the key evidence is necessary to be identified.

Among the most important faunas in the Late Cenozoic, the Gigantopithecus faunas have received a good deal of attention. The Gigantopithecus fauna recently discovered in Sanhe Cave consists of more than 80 mammal species, including cf. Hominidae, Pongo sp., Hylobates sp., Sinomastodon yangziensis, Stegodon preorientalis, Cervavitus fenqii, Dicoryphochoerus ultimus and Sus xiaozhu. It is the southernmost Gigantopithecus fauna found so far in China. Its geological age is estimated to be Early Pleistocene based on the fauna and stratigraphic correlation. The significant increase in the estimated body sizes of Ailuropoda, Gigantopithecus and Tapirus shows that the Sanhe fauna is middle Early Pleistocene, later than those from Wushan and Liucheng (early Early Pleistocene). Paleomagnetic dating of the fossil-bearing strata in Sanhe Cave gives an age of approximately 1.2 Ma. The fauna is characterized by tropical-subtropical forest types, including Pongo sp., Tupaia sp., Ia sp., Typhlomys intermedius, etc., and it lacks Palaearctic types. It is a typical tropical forest fauna, suggesting an environment with a lush forest and a warm and humid climate. The discovery of the Sanhe Gigantopithecus fauna is significant for establishing the chronological stages of the Gigantopithecus faunas in China, and for discussing their origin, evolution and dynamics.

Previous analyses of dental size in Gigantopithecus blacki indicated marked sexual dimorphism and a trend towards increasing size through time. These studies were based on a sample of over 700 teeth from five localities excavated prior to 1990. Since then, 12 additional cave sites have been discovered in southern China, yielding hundreds of isolated teeth of G. blacki. Most of these sites are well dated by a combination of biochronology and absolute dating methods, so we now have a much better understanding of the chronology of G. blacki. Here, we reexamine the degree of sexual dimorphism and the question of dental size increase through time in G. blacki based on the expanded collections now available. Our results show that sexual dimorphism is not as marked as indicated in previous studies and confirm earlier analyses suggesting that the postcanine teeth of G. blacki tend to become larger through time from the beginning of the Early Pleistocene to the Middle Pleistocene.

Promimomys asiaticus sp. nov., the first known species of the genus in East Asia, is described. The material was collected from the early Pliocene cave deposit in Dajushan Hill, Huainan, Anhui Province.Promimomys was first found in Europe and considered as the ancestor of the family Arvicolidae. The new species from China is distinct from the type species,P. cor, and other known species in its thicker enamel of uniform thickness, simple anterior loop of ml, and blunt, salient angles. It is more primitive than other known species in Europe and North America and also more primitive thanMimomys bilikeensis of early Pliocene of Inner Mongolia. It is thus the earliest and the most primitive arvicolid rodent known. The discovery ofPromimomys asiaticus sp. nov. is significant to the study on the origin and the phylogeny of arvicolids, and to the discussion of the intercontinental dispersal events of arvicolids.

Numerous remains of a bamboo rat from the Early Pleistocene of Renzidong Cave are described systematically. The morphological characters of the remains indicate that they are assignable to a new species of Rhizomys, which is named R. fanchangensis here. Rhizomys is an extant genus, but the new species is extinct and shows such primitive characters as being small-sized and bearing brachydont molars as a species of Rhizomys. It is chronologically the oldest one among the species of Rhizomys. Thus, the new species is important for bridging the Pliocene species of the ancestral genus, Brachyrhizomys, and Rhizomys species from the later stages of the Quaternary, chronologically and morphologically. Additionally, in this paper, we follow the chronological division of the Pliocene and Pleistocene generally adopted among Chinese geologist, in which their boundary lies at the Matuyama/Gauss geomagnetic boundary.

Fossils of the giant panda Ailuropoda (Order Carnivora, Family Ursidae) are largely isolated teeth, mandibles, and a few rare skulls, known from the late Pliocene to late Pleistocene in China and Southeast Asia. Much of this material represents a Pleistocene chronospecies, Ailuropoda baconi , an animal larger than the living giant panda, Ailuropoda melanoleuca . The earliest certain record of Ailuropoda is the late Pliocene chronospecies, Ailuropoda microta , smaller than either A. baconi or A. melanoleuca , and previously known only from teeth and a few mandibles from karst caves in south China. Here, we report the discovery of the first skull of A. microta , establishing its cranial anatomy and demonstrating that the specialized cranial and dental adaptations of Ailuropoda for durophagous feeding behavior centered on bamboo were already evident in this late Pliocene species. The skull from Jinyin cave (Guangxi) and dental remains from other karst localities in southeastern China show that Ailuropoda microta occupied south China from ≈2 to 2.4 Myr ago after a marked global climatic deterioration. Dental and basicranial anatomy indicate a less specialized morphology early in the history of the lineage and support derivation of the giant panda from the Miocene Asian ursid Ailurarctos

“Elemental carbon” (EC) is a C-rich, O-H-S-N-depleted substance that is necessarily produced in the process of combustion. Due to the long-term use of fire by cave-inhabiting ape-men, considerable amounts of “elemental carbon” would be necessarily left behind in the corresponding strata inside the cave. The separation of EC was effected by the chemical method and the contents of carbon were determined on an element analyzer and a self-made measuring system. The concentrations of EC in the hearth, the exhibited ash samples collected from near the hearth unearthed in the 1930s, and the three samples of accumulated material collected from the tenth bed are 43.74%, 1.77%, 3.88%, 1.87% and 1.11%, respectively; those of the equivalent samples from the tenth bed outside the cave and samples from the fourth and seventh beds are at least one order of magnitude lower than the former’s. The above results show that the sampling location of the tenth bed may be close to the hearth. Sampling over a wider range may lead to the finding of a location where the concentrations of EC are corresponding to the maximum values of EC in the hearth. The determination and study of EC may provide new evidence for the use of fire by Peking Man.