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Lameness assessments are rarely conducted routinely on dairy farms and when completed typically underestimate lameness prevalence, hampering early diagnosis and treatment. A well-known feature of many perceptual tasks is that relative assessments are more accurate than absolute assessments, suggesting that creating methods that allow for the relative scoring of which cow is more lame will allow for reliable lameness assessments. Here we developed and tested a remote comparative lameness assessment method: we recruited nonexperienced crowd workers via an online platform and asked them to watch 2 videos side-by-side, each showing a cow walking, and to identify which cow was more lame and by how much (on a scale of -3 to 3). We created 11 tasks, each with 10 video pairs for comparison, and recruited 50 workers per task. All tasks were also completed by 5 experienced cattle lameness assessors. We evaluated data filtering and clustering methods based on worker responses and determined the agreement among workers, among experienced assessors, and between these groups. A moderate to high interobserver reliability was observed (intraclass correlation coefficient, ICC = 0.46 to 0.77) for crowd workers and agreement was high among the experienced assessors (ICC = 0.87). Average crowd-worker responses showed excellent agreement with the average of experienced assessor responses (ICC = 0.89 to 0.91), regardless of data processing method. To investigate if we could use fewer workers per task while still retaining high agreement with experienced assessors, we randomly subsampled 2 to 43 (1 less than the minimum number of workers retained per task after data cleaning) workers from each task. The agreement with experienced assessors increased substantially as we increased the number of workers from 2 to 10, but little increase was observed after 10 or more workers were used (ICC > 0.80). The proposed method provides a fast and cost-effective way to assess lameness in commercial herds. In addition, this method allows for large-scale data collection useful for training computer vision algorithms that could be used to automate lameness assessments on farm., (© 2023, The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).)

Lameness assessments are commonly conducted at a single point in time, but such assessments are subject to multiple sources of error. We conducted a longitudinal study, assessing the gait of 282 lactating dairy cows weekly during the first 12 wk of lactation, with the aim of assessing how lameness prevalence changed in relation to case definition and assessment frequency. Gait was scored using a 5-point scale where scores of 1 and 2 were considered sound, 3 was clinically lame, and 4 and 5 were severely lame. We created 5 lameness definitions using increasingly stringent thresholds based upon the number of consecutive events of locomotion score ≥3. In LAME1, a cow was considered lame when locomotion score was ≥3 at any scoring event, in LAME2, LAME3, LAME4, and LAME5, a cow was considered lame when locomotion score was 3 or higher during 2, 3, 4, and 5 consecutive scoring events, respectively. We also assessed the effect of assessment frequency on measures of prevalence and incidence using weekly assessment (ASSM1), 1 assessment every 2 wk (ASSM2), 1 assessment every 3 wk (ASSM3), and 1 assessment every 4 wk (ASSM4). Using LAME1, 69.2% of cows were considered lame at some point during the trial, with an average point prevalence of 31.8% (SD: 2.8) and average incidence rate of 10.9 cases/100 cow weeks (SD: 3.7). Lameness prevalence decreased to 28.0% when using LAME5. Survival analysis was used to assess the effects of parity, using these different case definitions. Parity is a known risk for lameness, such that case definitions and prevalence estimates should be stratified by parity to inform management decisions. Using the LAME3 criterion, primiparous cows had the highest chance of reaching 12 wk without a lameness event, and fourth and higher parities had the lowest. Weighted linear and quadratic kappa values were used to assess agreement between different assessment frequencies and lameness definitions; we found substantial to excellent agreement between ASSM1 and ASSM2 using LAME1, LAME2, and LAME3 definitions. Agreement was fair to substantial between ASSM1 and ASSM3 and low to fair between ASSM1 and ASSM4. Likewise, the agreement between LAME1 and LAME2 was fair in primiparous cows, substantial in second and third parity cows, and poor to fair in fourth and greater parity cows. We conclude that lameness prevalence estimates are dependent upon case definition and that the use of more stringent case definitions results in fewer cows classified as lame. These results suggest that routine locomotion assessments be conducted at least every 2 wk, and that cows should be defined as lame on the basis of 2 consecutive assessments., (© 2022, The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).)

Lameness is a common condition in dairy cows. Free-choice access to pasture may benefit lame cows by providing a softer and more comfortable lying and standing surface; however, the effects of this system on lameness have not yet been explored. We evaluated whether a 7-wk period of free-choice pasture access would improve lameness recovery and affect the lying behavior of lame dairy cows. Lactating Holstein cows, all clinically lame upon enrollment and housed inside a freestall barn, were pseudo-randomly allocated to 1 of 2 treatments (balancing for gait score, parity, and previous lameness history): free-choice access to pasture (n = 27; pasture) or indoor housing only (n = 27; indoor). Cows were gait scored weekly by an observer blind to treatment, using a 5-point numerical rating system (NRS 1 = sound, NRS 5 = severely lame), and hoof inspections were performed by professional trimmers at the start and end of the 7-wk period. Lying behavior was assessed using accelerometers. Cows were categorized as either having a sound period (NRS <2 over 2 consecutive weeks) or remaining lame. Cows spent, on average, 14.8 ± 10.0% (mean ± SD) of their total time on pasture, with much of this time spent outside at night. Over the 7-wk period, 42% of cows had at least one sound period (pasture: 55.6%, indoor: 26.9%), but this was more likely for cows with pasture access (odds ratio = 4.1; 95% confidence interval: 1.1-14.6%). Pasture cows also spent more total weeks sound compared with indoor cows (2.0 ± 0.34 vs. 0.81 ± 0.35 wk). Cows with pasture access lay down for less overall time than indoor cows (13.9 ± 0.29 vs. 12.7 ± 0.28 h/d) and spent more time standing on pasture (74%) than when indoors (47%). These results suggest that lame dairy cows will use pasture when provided with free-choice access, primarily at night, and that access to pasture aids in lameness recovery. We encourage future research to investigate longer-term effects on the recovery of hoof lesions and reoccurrence of lameness cases., (© 2022, The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).)

Transition period (±3 wk around calving) diseases are prevalent in dairy systems. In this review we describe the physiological and behavioral changes experienced by cows during the transition period and during the dry period leading up to this. Our narrative review examines risk factors associated with these diseases in zero-grazing and grazing systems. The available research indicates that cows in these 2 systems experience similar incidences of transition diseases, and that low or high BCS and lameness are key manageable risks associated with both systems. Other cow- and herd-level risk factors identified in this review are parity, breed, and seasonal variability in disease incidence. Some risks appear to arise earlier in the dry period, outside what is normally considered the transition period; we recommend that future studies of transition period diseases should consider the entire dry period. We also encourage new work on measuring the effect of intervention strategies during late lactation on transition period diseases., (© 2022, The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).)

Cows typically defecate while standing. Freestalls are designed to position standing cows such that their feces fall into the alley. Cows sometimes defecate while lying down, increasing the risk that feces contaminate the stall surface. We conducted 2 studies investigating cow-level and environmental factors associated with defecating while recumbent. In experiment 1, we hypothesized that conditions making it more difficult for cows to stand up (including greater age, high body weight, pregnancy, and lameness) would increase the risk of this behavior. We followed 92 cows for 12 d, scanning stalls 5 times/d using live observation. Almost half (48%) of all cows defecated while recumbent at least once; cows that spent more time lying down and that were earlier in gestation were at highest risk. Weight, parity, age, and lameness were not associated with this behavior. In experiment 2, we tested how overstocking influenced the occurrence of defecating while recumbent. We predicted overstocking would increase the occurrence of this behavior, especially when cows were in stalls at more preferred locations. We recorded stall occupancy, displacement attempts, and defecating while recumbent in 4 groups of 36 cows tested at both 100% and 150% lying stall stocking densities for 2 nights each using a crossover design. Overstocking resulted in higher stall use and more displacements, but less lying and fewer perching events. We did not detect any relationship between use of specific stalls or competition and defecating while recumbent. Most recorded displacements were associated with perching. Increased time perching increased the likelihood of defecating while recumbent, perhaps because perching cows were less dominant or more reluctant to stand up once lying down in the stall. Overstocking did not increase defecating while recumbent, likely because cows spent less time lying down. Together, these results indicate that defecating while recumbent can be common, and points to some of the cow-level factors associated with this behavior., (© 2022, The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).)

Studies performed on individual research farms have reported that dairy cattle developing sole hemorrhages or sole ulcers in peak to mid lactation spent more time standing during the weeks around calving. The aim of this prospective observational longitudinal study was to evaluate whether this relationship is evident in commercial dairy herds. A convenience sample of 8 herds were visited every other week, and animals without previous severe horn lesions and deemed sound at 4 to 8 wk before calving were enrolled. Standing behavior was measured with data loggers attached to a rear leg, and standing time and duration of the longest standing bout were determined for each cow. Standing behavior was summarized into 3 periods: before (d -14 to -2), around (d -1 to 1), and after (d 2 to 14) calving. Average daily standing time and average daily longest standing bout were determined for each cow and period. Average daily standing time was normally distributed, with a mean ± standard deviation of 12.1 ± 1.6, 14.4 ± 2.2, and 13.8 ± 1.7 h/d for the 3 periods, respectively. Average daily longest standing bout was right skewed with a median of 3.6 h/d [interquartile range (IQR): 3.0 to 4.3; range: 1.7 to 12.1], 3.9 h/d (IQR: 3.1 to 4.8; range: 1.3 to 11.5), and 3.7 (IQR: 3.2 to 4.4; range: 1.5 to 11.7) h/d before, around, and after calving, respectively. Hoof trimming was performed 8 to 12 wk postpartum; hoof lesion data were summarized per cow, and the most serious injury of each type of lesion was noted. Sole hemorrhages or sole ulcers were found in 25 of 256 cows. Mixed-effect logistic regression models with herd as random effect were used to analyze the risk of developing sole hemorrhages and sole ulcers, using animals without hoof lesions as reference category. Separate models were fitted for the 2 standing behaviors, and for the periods before, around, and after calving. Change in standing behavior from before to after calving was also analyzed. Body condition score at calving, body condition score loss in early lactation, milk yield, parity, and days in milk at trimming were included as covariates. In this study, no evidence for an association was found between sole hemorrhages and sole ulcers and standing behavior before or around calving. Longer standing time and longer standing bouts after calving were associated with increased odds of developing sole hemorrhages and sole ulcers, as was an increase in standing bout duration from before to after calving. Animals with sole horn or white line lesions had higher unconditional sample odds of becoming lame (odds ratio = 2.5) and severely lame (odds ratio = 11.7) after calving, compared with animals with no registered lesions at trimming. Multiparous animals had higher lameness incidence, both before and after calving. Avoiding practices that exacerbate increases in standing time and standing bout duration in early lactation may reduce the incidence of sole hemorrhages and sole ulcers., (© 2021, The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).)

Many dairy cattle worldwide are housed in tiestalls, meaning that they are tethered by the neck to individual stalls. On some farms, tied cattle are permitted seasonal access to pasture, but otherwise their movements are restricted compared with cows housed in freestall barns or other loose housing systems. The aim of this systematic review is to summarize the scientific literature pertaining the welfare of tied dairy cattle through comparison with less-restrictive housing systems. Articles identified by PubMed and Web of Science underwent a 5-phase screening process, resulting in the inclusion of 102 papers. These papers addressed measures of welfare related to affective state, natural behavior, and health (with the lattermost category subdivided into hoof and leg disorders, lameness, mastitis, transition disease, and other diseases or conditions). Health was the most researched topic (discussed in 86% of articles); only 19% and 14% of studies addressed natural behavior and affective state, respectively. Our review highlights different health benefits for tethered and loose cattle. For example, tied cattle experience reduced prevalence of white line disease and digital dermatitis, whereas loose cattle experience fewer leg lesions and injuries. The prevalence of mastitis, transition diseases, and other conditions did not differ consistently across housing types. We found that the expression of certain natural behaviors, particularly those associated with lying down (e.g., time spent kneeling, unfulfilled intentions to lie down), were impaired in tiestalls. Articles addressing affective state found benefits to loose housing, but these studies focused almost exclusively on (1) physiological measurements and (2) cow comfort, a concept that lacks a consistent operational definition across studies. We call for future research into the affective state of tied cattle that extends beyond these explorations and employs more sophisticated methodologies., (The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. and Fass Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).)

Conventional locomotion scoring is a subjective, absolute, and discrete assessment of locomotion. Here we assess pairwise comparison scoring to improve upon the limited intra- and interobserver consistency typical of conventional locomotion scoring. Five observers performed conventional 4-level locomotion scoring using 50 video recordings of dairy cattle, and also assessed 90 pairs of videos (composed from the same 50 recordings) using relative pairwise scoring. Intra- and interobserver consistency of pairwise scores [intraobserver: percentage agreement (PA) = 82%, κ = 0.63; interobserver: PA = 79%, κ = 0.57] were greater than of 4-level absolute scores (intraobserver: PA = 72%, κw = 0.74; interobserver: PA = 56%, κw = 0.59). Pairwise scores were scaled with an optimization method to obtain the position of the 50 recordings on a continuous locomotion scale. These continuous locomotion scores (CLS) were compared with the conventional mean absolute visual locomotion scores (VLS). Correlation between CLS and VLS was strong (τ = 0.69), and consistency between binarized CLS and binarized VLS was high (PA = 84%, κ = 0.66 for threshold VLS ≥1). Just noticeable difference (JND) for locomotion scoring was 0.3 on a 4-level scale ranging from 0 to 3. Pairwise scoring and scaling had the scoring consistency of binary absolute scoring with finer continuous granularity than 4-level absolute scoring. The pairwise scoring method, and associated scaling, offer a more consistent and informative alternative to conventional absolute multilevel locomotion scoring., (Copyright © 2021 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

This study evaluated feed intake, milk yield, and subclinical ketosis in dairy cows in early lactation fed 2 different diets postpartum. Cows are typically offered a high-energy ration immediately after calving. We compared a conventional high-energy total mixed ration (TMR) with a transition ration that contained chopped straw. We predicted that adding chopped straw would increase dry matter intake, milk production, and indicators of energy metabolism during the first 3 wk of lactation compared to cows fed a conventional high-energy TMR. We also predicted that carryover effects would be likely for at least 2 wk after treatment ended. A total of 68 mixed-age Holstein cows were enrolled in the study 3 wk before their expected calving. All cows were managed on a single high-forage diet during the dry period. At calving, cows were allocated to 1 of the 2 diets: half to the conventional high-energy TMR (CTMR; n = 34; net energy for lactation = 1.61 Mcal/kg; neutral detergent fiber = 31.7%), and the other half to a high-forage TMR containing chopped wheat straw, equivalent to 4.27% dry matter (STMR; n = 34; net energy for lactation = 1.59 Mcal/kg; neutral detergent fiber = 33.7%) for 3 wk after calving. Cows on STMR were then shifted to CTMR for the next 2 wk to study short-term residual effects on the performance of cows. Treatments were balanced for parity, body condition score, and body weight. Feed intake was measured daily from 2 wk before to 5 wk after calving using automatic feed bins. Blood was sampled twice weekly from 2 wk before to 5 wk after calving, and β-hydroxybutyrate and glucose were measured in serum samples. Subclinical ketosis was identified using a threshold of β-hydroxybutyrate ≥1.0 mmol/L in wk 1 after calving and ≥1.2 mmol/L in wk 2 to 5 after calving. Cows were milked twice daily, and weekly samples (composite samples of morning and afternoon milkings) were analyzed to determine total solids, fat, protein, lactose, and somatic cell count. Data were analyzed in 2 separate periods: the treatment phase (wk +1, +2, and +3) and the post-treatment phase (wk +4 and +5). The addition of straw to the TMR negatively affected the dry matter intake of STMR cows during wk 2 and 3 of lactation. Daily milk yield during the first 5 wk of lactation was lower in STMR cows than in CTMR cows. Concentrations of β-hydroxybutyrate were higher in CTMR cows than in STMR cows during wk 1, but this effect was reversed during wk 2 and 3 of lactation. By 21 d in milk, STMR cows had a greater risk of developing subclinical ketosis than CTMR cows. Adding chopped wheat straw to the TMR during the first 21 d after calving lowered dry matter intake and provided no metabolic or production benefits to lactating dairy cattle., (Copyright © 2021 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The primary aim of this prospective experimental study was to evaluate how the social environment after calving influenced standing behavior in primiparous cows. At calving, primiparous cows were mixed with familiar peers in a low-stocked pen (≤33% stocking density; n = 22) or mixed with unknown older cows at 100% stocking density (n = 20). All study cows were mixed with older cows 3 wk after calving. Time spent standing and perching (standing with only the front feet in the stall) were measured d 1 to 3 after calving using 5-min scan sampling. To evaluate if the low-stocked treatment constituted a low-stress social environment, agonistic interactions at the feed barrier were measured for 90 min following feed delivery for a subsample of cows in both treatments (12 cows/treatment). The daily behavioral time budget, including the 90 min following milking, was examined for this subset of cows. A secondary aim was to assess if the social environment after calving was related to the risk of developing claw horn lesions later in lactation. Sole and white line lesions were recorded at wk 6 and 12 after calving, and cows were categorized as either having or not having at least 1 hemorrhage of severity ≥3 (scale 1 to 5) for each lesion type and assessment. Prolonged standing after regrouping was not observed, and we found no differences in standing time and time spent perching between treatments. Agonistic behaviors directed toward the focal cows occurred less frequently in the low-stocked pen compared with the control. The number and severity of sole and white line lesions increased after calving. At wk 6 postpartum there was a numeric (but not statistically significant) difference between treatments in the proportion of primiparous cows that had white line hemorrhages of severity score ≥3 (low-stress social environment: 20% vs. control: 50%). In conclusion, under the conditions of this study the social environment did not influence standing behavior, but did affect agonistic interactions and may have influenced the risk of claw horn lesions in the weeks following calving. Further studies should evaluate the relationship between the social environment and claw health., (Copyright © 2021 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Lameness is a major welfare problem in the dairy industry. Environmental factors, such as flooring surface, as well as cow-level factors, such as udder fill, can influence gait. The aim of the current study was to test whether motivation to walk affects gait attributes and whether this effect differs between lame and sound cows. We trained cows to walk down an alley for a food reward and assessed walking speed, stride length, head bob, and back arch of cows previously identified as either lame (n = 7) or sound (n = 10). Cows were assessed when they walked toward a food reward and toward no reward. Cows walked faster and had longer stride length and less variation in head bob when approaching the reward; these effects were similar in both sound and lame cows. We concluded that motivation to walk affects several gait attributes of dairy cows., (Copyright © 2020 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Dairy cows are often diagnosed with fever without showing clinical symptoms of disease. The aim of this study was to investigate changes in feeding, social, and lying behaviors of cows with fever but without clinical disease, as compared with healthy cows. After parturition, dairy cows of mixed parities were housed in a dynamic group of 20. In the freestall pen, cows had access to 12 electronic feed bins, 2 electronic water bins, and 24 lying stalls. Feeding and social behaviors were recorded using the electronic feed bins, and lying behaviors were measured using electronic data loggers attached to the cow. Rectal body temperature was assessed on a daily basis, and fever defined as a body temperature >39.5°C. All cows were examined for metritis every third day after calving, and all other diseases (e.g., mastitis, ketosis) were diagnosed as per farm protocol. Cows with multiple days of fever (n = 8) and cows with 1 d of fever (n = 18) that were not diagnosed with a clinical disease were compared with a matched sample of healthy cows (i.e., cows that were not clinically ill and never had a fever recorded) of the same parity (categorized as primiparous vs. multiparous). Feeding, social, and lying behaviors were compared for the first 2 d of fever in cows with multiple days of fever, and the day of fever in cows with 1 d of fever. Cows of both fever groups spent less time feeding compared with controls (135 vs. 181 ± 7.6 min/d for multiple fever days, and 158 vs. 185 ± 9.7 min/d for 1 d of fever). Cows with 1 d of fever ate at a faster rate (109 vs. 91 ± 5 g/min) and had a lower number of replacements at the feed bunk (actor replacements: 9.7 vs. 14.6 ± 1.7 no./d; reactor replacements: 11.1 vs. 15.9 ± 1.6 no./d) compared with healthy controls. Overall, cows with fever showed behavioral changes such as decreased feeding time that are consistent with sickness responses described in other species., (Copyright © 2020 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Heat-stressed dairy cows on pasture will compete for resources that aid cooling, but it is not known how heat stress affects the competition for water by indoor-housed cows. The aim of this observational study was to evaluate how heat stress affects the behavior of indoor-housed cows at the drinker at both group and cow levels. For 3 wk after calving, cows were housed in a dynamic group of 20 animals in a pen with 12 electronic feed bins, 2 electronic water bins, and 24 freestalls. A total of 69 lactating Holstein dairy cows were enrolled over the 59-d study. The electronic water bins recorded time spent at the drinker, frequency of visits, water intake, and competitive events for 24 h/d. Competitive events were quantified using the number of replacements (recorded when there was a ≤29-s interval between 2 cows sequentially visiting the same drinker). The number of replacements a cow was involved in was used to determine her level of competitive success at the drinker (low, medium, high). The temperature-humidity index (THI) was recorded by the local weather station, and moving averages for daily maximum THI over a 3-d period were calculated. For the analysis of time spent at the drinker, frequency of visits, and water intake, the measures from all cows were averaged to create 1 observation per day, and the number of replacements at the drinker was summed. A linear regression was performed to determine the relationship between THI and group-level drinking behavior. At the cow level, a repeated measures mixed model, with fixed effects of level of competitive success, milk yield, and 3-d maximum THI and a first-order autoregressive covariance structure, was used to determine how increasing THI affects the drinking behavior of individual cows based on their level of competitive success. Feed intake was included as a fixed effect in the water intake model. We found that, with increasing THI, cows drank more water, spent more time at the drinker, made more visits to the drinker, and engaged in more competitive events at the drinker. In exploratory analysis, we found that cows with low competitive success at the drinker shifted their drinking behavior to avoid the drinker at the hottest and most competitive time of day. These results indicate that behavior can be used to indicate when cows feel hot. These measures may be of practical value in deciding when to provide cooling, especially for farms where attendance at the drinker can be monitored electronically., (Copyright © 2020 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The reliability of locomotion scoring is often low, making it unclear how a single gait score should be interpreted. In addition, differences in assessment frequency between longitudinal studies makes it hard to compare results. Our aims were to evaluate how lameness definition and assessment frequency affect measures of lameness incidence. Six dairy farms in British Columbia, Canada, were enrolled, and 262 cows that were sound at dry-off had their locomotion score (LS) assessed weekly from dry-off to calving, using a 1 to 5 scale. Cows were categorized as remaining sound or becoming lame using 3 different case definitions (LAME1: ≥LS3 at least once; LAME2: ≥2 consecutive scores of LS3, or ≥LS4 at least once; and LAME3: ≥3 consecutive scores of LS3, or ≥LS4 at least once). We analyzed the correspondence between the 3 definitions with percent agreement and weighted κ (linear and quadratic weighting). Comparing LAME1 to LAME3 resulted in lower percent agreement (53%) and κ values (linear κ w = 0.50; quadratic κ w = 0.64) than comparing LAME2 and LAME3 (85%; linear κ w = 0.83; quadratic κ w = 0.89), indicating that cows scored LS3 twice were likely to be scored LS3 a third time. We also compared the 3 case definitions against trim records from trimmings occurring 90 d or less before calving (n = 117), and used logistic regression models to determine sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive value. Using the LAME1 criterion resulted in high sensitivity (horn lesions = 0.90; infectious lesions = 0.92) and low specificity (horn = 0.21; infectious = 0.24). We observed higher specificity for LAME2 (horn = 0.62; infectious = 0.66) and LAME3 (horn = 0.71; infectious = 0.77), but LAME2 had higher sensitivity than LAME3 (horn = 0.89 vs. 0.64; infectious = 0.69 vs. 0.64). When evaluating the effects of assessment frequency, we obtained 3 data sets by keeping every, every other, and every third locomotion assessment, and using LAME2 as a case definition. More cows were categorized as lame when assessment frequency increased. Of the cows that were classified as lame when assessed weekly, 72% of the mildly lame, and 33% of the severely lame were classified as sound when assessed every third week. Our results suggest that a single LS3 score should not be used as a criterion for lameness in longitudinal studies. To correctly identify new cases of lameness, dairy cows should be assessed at least every 2 wk., (Copyright © 2020 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

In this longitudinal study, we tested the hypothesis that cows that are lame around dry-off are at increased risk of transition diseases (TD), including metritis, subclinical ketosis (SCK), retained fetal membranes, hypocalcemia, or displaced abomasum. We also hypothesized that the relationship between lameness and TD would be mediated through reduced feeding time. We enrolled 461 cows at 9 wk before their expected calving date on 6 commercial freestall farms in the lower Fraser Valley, British Columbia, Canada. Cows were gait-scored weekly using a scale of 1 to 5. Lameness status was classified based on consecutive gait scores as lame (2 consecutive gait scores = 3 or 1 score ≥4) or sound (2 consecutive gait scores ≤2). Lameness status was summarized as (1) lameness at dry-off (sound or lame); (2) lameness group (always sound = sound on all visits, chronically lame = lame on all visits, and other = changed from sound to lame or vice versa); and (3) proportion of weeks lame during the dry period. Body condition scores were recorded at dry-off and at calving and collectively used to calculate change in body condition for each cow. A subsample of cows (n = 159) was evaluated for feeding time once a week during the dry period. All cows were evaluated for SCK (positive = β-hydroxybutyrate ≥1.2 mmol/L) and metritis (positive = foul smell, red/brown watery vaginal discharge) every 3 to 4 d between d 3 and 17 after calving. We retrieved data on treatment of retained fetal membranes, hypocalcemia, and displaced abomasum during the first 17 d after calving, cow parity, and milk production in the previous lactation from farm records. We created a binary variable, TD (any of SCK, metritis, retained fetal membranes, hypocalcemia, or displaced abomasum), to differentiate between healthy cows and cows that developed TD. Lameness at dry-off was associated with the occurrence of metritis and TD, but not with SCK. Cows that were chronically lame and cows that had an increased proportion of weeks lame during the dry period had higher occurrence of metritis and TD. Lameness was also associated with reduced feeding time, which in turn was associated with increased likelihood of SCK and TD, but not with metritis. Lameness was not associated with change in body condition; however, cows that lost body condition score during the dry period had increased odds of developing SCK, metritis, and TD. Change in body condition was highly associated with body condition score at dry-off. These results suggest that association between lameness and TD is partially mediated through reduced feeding time., (The Authors. Published by FASS Inc. and Elsevier Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).)

Hyperketonemia and metritis are common in the weeks after calving. This study tested if feeding and agonistic behaviors before calving were associated with the development of hyperketonemia (HYK) and metritis after calving. Holstein cows on 5 commercial farms were monitored for HYK (as identified using a cow-side β-hydroxybutyrate test) and metritis (using visual and olfactory assessment of vaginal discharge); both tests were conducted twice a week for 2 wk. Based on this assessment, we selected a balanced sample of cows that remained healthy (no signs of illness; n = 20), cows diagnosed with either HYK (n = 20) or metritis (n = 20), and cows with both HYK and metritis (n = 20). Video recordings from the 8 wk before calving (scored every 2 wk for 90 min immediately after fresh feed delivery) were used to evaluate feeding behavior and competition at the feed bunk. Feeding behavior before calving was associated with postpartum diagnosis of HYK and metritis. Specifically, cows that spent less time eating had higher odds of HYK and metritis. Odds of remaining healthy (compared with becoming sick with at least 1 condition) increased by 1.3 times for every additional 15 min spent eating. Additionally, cows that were involved in fewer agonistic interactions prepartum were more likely to be diagnosed with both conditions during the postpartum period. Odds of remaining healthy (compared with becoming sick with at least one condition) increased by 1.9 times for every 6 additional interactions. We conclude that prepartum feeding and agonistic behaviors can be used to identify animals at risk of HYK and metritis postpartum., (Copyright © 2020 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Lameness has been extensively studied in lactating cows, whereas few studies have reported on lameness during the dry period. We conducted a prospective longitudinal study to describe the epidemiology of lameness during the dry period and to identify risk factors associated with onset, cure, and chronic cases of lameness. A total of 455 cows from 6 freestall commercial dairy farms were enrolled at 9 wk before calving and gait scored weekly until calving using a 5-point scale. A subset of cows was also followed fortnightly after calving to measure the association between lameness during the dry period and lameness during early lactation. Body condition score (BCS) was assessed in a 5-point scale using increments of 0.5. Hoof-trimming records, parity, and previous lactation milk production were retrieved from farm's database. Cows were considered sound when 2 consecutive scores were ≤2 and lame when 2 consecutive scores = 3, or any assessment with score >3; when in a sequence of scores only one score = 3 (or ≤2), the cow was considered sound (or alternatively lame). Following this lameness definition, we derived weekly lameness status for each cow and calculated the number of new cases of lameness, the number of cure cases and the number of chronic cases. The incidence rate of lameness cases during the dry period was 8.2 lameness cases/100 cow per wk, whereas cure rate was 7.1 cure cases/100 cow per wk; at the end of the dry period 50% of cows had developed lameness and 36% were cured. Multilevel logistic regression models using farm as random effect were fitted to assess (1) the association between being lame in wk 2 or 8 postcalving with being lame in the last week precalving, (2) risk factors for lameness onset, (3) risk factors for lameness cure, and (4) risk factors for chronic lameness. Cows that were lame in the week immediately before calving were more likely to be lame in wk 2 and 8 after calving. We found that the interaction between parity and hoof-trimming before dry-off was associated with lameness onset; primiparous cows that were trimmed before dry-off had lower odds of developing lameness, whereas the opposite was found for multiparous cows. The same interaction was also associated with the odds of chronic lameness. Cows that were diagnosed with noninfectious hoof lesions compared with cows that were not diagnosed with hoof lesions before dry-off, and cows that had BCS <3 compared with cows with BCS 3.0 to 3.5 at dry-off had higher odds of chronic lameness. Conversely, primiparous cows and cows with BCS 3.0 to 3.5 had higher odds of curing lameness during the dry period. Our results suggest that the dry period may be a period of high risk for lameness development and that hoof-trimming before dry-off may not be effective for all cows., (The Authors. Published by FASS Inc. and Elsevier Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).)

Our objective was to evaluate how sampling strategies (i.e., how many cows to sample and which animals to include) used in 4 dairy cattle welfare assessment programs affect the classification of dairy farms relative to thresholds of acceptability for animal-based measures. We predicted that classification performance would improve when more cows were sampled and when selecting from all lactating cows versus when some pens were excluded. On 38 freestall farms, we assessed all 12,375 cows for lameness, injuries on the tarsal (hock) and carpal joints, and body condition score and calculated the farm-level prevalence for each measure. Based on approaches used in the industry, we evaluated 6 sampling strategies generated using formulas with precision (d) of 15, 10, or 5% applied to either a single high-producing pen or all lactating cows; an additional sample was included with d = 10% applied to the entire herd, selecting lactating cows in proportion to their representation in the herd. For each sampling strategy, cow records were selected randomly (in 10,000 replicates) to calculate prevalence. The strategy of assessing all cows in the high-producing pen was also compared. Farms were classified as meeting (below) or failing to meet (above) thresholds of ≤15% moderate lameness; ≤20% moderate carpal or hock injuries; <10, <5, and ≤1% severe lameness; or injuries on the carpus or hock; and <5, <3, <1, or 0% thin cows. For each measure and threshold, we calculated pooled percent agreement, kappa, sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive value for each sampling strategy using true prevalence as the gold standard for herd classification. Across measures and thresholds, classification performance increased with the number of cows sampled [i.e., when narrower precision values (d = 5 vs. 10 vs. 15%) were used in the sample size calculation]. Because narrower precision values can dramatically increase sample size, assessment programs may need to consider both feasibility and the degree of misclassification they will accept. Applying the formula directly to lactating cows performed better than applying it to the entire herd and then selecting lactating cows in proportion to their representation in the herd. Farm classifications were similar whether cows in the hospital pen were included or excluded from the sample. Selecting all cows from the high-producing pen resulted in classifications similar to when including all lactating cows, suggesting that assessing cows from the high-producing pen may serve as an acceptable proxy for all lactating cows on the farm., (The Authors. Published by FASS Inc. and Elsevier Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).)

Lameness is a serious welfare issue for dairy cows. To date, the majority of studies have focused on its effect on health and behavior at the herd level. The objectives of this study were to identify (1) between-cow and (2) within-cow changes in lying behavior associated with consistent and changing lameness status in grazing dairy cows. Previous studies of lying behavior in grazing dairy cows have not considered the effect of precipitation, so a third aim was to determine the effect of precipitation on lying behavior. A total of 252 dairy cows from 6 pasture-based farms in southern Brazil were gait scored weekly to assess lameness using a 5-point scale [1-5, numerical rating score (NRS)] for 4 consecutive weeks. Cows were considered to have consistent lameness if they were scored as lame (NRS ≥3) on each of the 4 visits and considered to have a changing lameness status if scored as being nonlame (NRS <3) on at least 1 of the 4 visits. Cows classified as having a changing lameness status were further classified as developed, recovered, or inconsistent. Lying behavior (daily lying time, mean lying bout duration, and daily number of lying bouts) was recorded continuously for 3 wk using leg-mounted accelerometers. Cow-level variables included parity, days in milk, and body condition score. Regional precipitation and temperature were recorded hourly. Because only 1 primiparous cow was identified as lame at each of the 4 visits, the between-cow analysis of lameness was run on multiparous cows only. The overall prevalence of clinical lameness on the first visit was 39%, with development and recovery rates of 16 and 10% over the 4 visits, respectively. The between-cow effect of consistent lameness status on daily lying time and number of lying bouts was dependent on precipitation; consistently lame cows had reduced lying time and lying bouts on days with rain compared with days without rain. There was no within-cow effect of changing lameness status on any of the lying behaviors. Precipitation was associated with decreased daily lying time, increased mean lying bout duration, and decreased daily number of lying bouts. The results of this research provide the first evidence that the effect of consistent lameness status on lying behavior is associated with rainfall in grazing dairy cows. Future work measuring lying behavior of grazing dairy cows should include precipitation as a covariate., (Copyright © 2019 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Concern from the public is growing regarding early cow-calf separation, yet proponents of this practice maintain that artificial rearing is critical for cow and calf health. Early separation is assumed to reduce the risk of transfer of pathogens from dam to neonatal calf, but a wide range of health benefits associated with extended cow-calf contact has also been documented. The aim of this systematic review was to report and synthesize conclusions from the literature on dairy cow and calf health in conventional rearing versus cow-calf contact systems. Peer-reviewed, published manuscripts, written in English, directly comparing dairy cow or calf health in artificial versus suckling systems, were eligible for inclusion. We conducted 7 targeted searches using Web of Science to identify key literature on important health conditions. The resulting manuscripts underwent a 4-step appraisal process, and further manuscripts were sourced from reference lists. This process resulted in a final sample of 70 articles that addressed cow and calf health. Sufficient literature was available to assess mastitis in cows, and scours, cryptosporidiosis, Johne's disease, pneumonia, immunity, and mortality in calves. The results for cryptosporidiosis, pneumonia, immunity, and mortality were mixed, with some differences between studies likely attributable to flawed comparisons between cohorts. Overall, the articles addressing calf scours and mastitis pointed to beneficial or no effects of suckling. The studies addressing Johne's disease did not find cow-calf contact to be a significant risk factor. In conclusion, the scientific peer-reviewed literature on cow and calf health provides no consistent evidence in support of early separation., (The Authors. Published by FASS Inc. and Elsevier Inc. on behalf of the American Dairy Science Association®. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).)

Metritis in dairy cows has been associated with changes in behavior at the feed bunk, but little is known about the effects on behavior at the lying stall. The aim of this study was to investigate stall use by primiparous dairy cows diagnosed with metritis, specifically time spent in the stall, social interactions at the stall, and lying-related behaviors. After parturition, primiparous cows were housed in a mixed-parity pen with a constant group size of 20. Cows had access to 12 electronic feed bins, 2 electronic water bins, and 24 lying stalls. Four cameras installed above the experimental pen allowed for observation of cows in the feeding and lying area. Every 3 d after parturition, cows were examined for metritis by evaluation of the visual appearance and olfactory character of vaginal discharge. Cows diagnosed with metritis (n = 16) were compared with healthy individuals (i.e., cows without metritis or other clinical disease, n = 16). Healthy individuals were selected based on data availability, body weight, and calving date and, based on these criteria, paired with metritic cows. Video of the 3 d before diagnosis (d -3 to d -1) in the metritic animals (and video from the corresponding days in milk for paired healthy cows) were used to measure behavior. Behaviors assessed included those in the stall (lying, perching, and standing fully in the stall), social behaviors (when a cow either displaced or was displaced by another cow; i.e., actor and reactor replacements), and lying-related behaviors (including visits when the cow entered and left the stall without lying down, aborted lying events when behaviors indicative of the onset of a lying bout were not followed by the cow lying down, and latency to lie down, defined as the time between an aborted lying event and the first lying bout). Cows with metritis spent more time standing fully in the stall on all 3 d, resulting in more time spent standing on d -2 and -1. Cows with metritis tended to have more aborted lying events on d -2, and significantly more on d -1. Cows with metritis tended to be replaced more often at the lying stall on d -3 and tended to have a longer latency to lie down on d -2. We observed no differences between health groups in the number of actor replacements or the number of visits to the stall. In summary, cows with metritis spent more time standing fully in the lying stall and had more aborted lying events. These results suggest that primiparous cows with metritis may be identified by altered behavior at the lying stall., (Copyright © 2018 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Metritis is common in the days after calving and can reduce milk production and reproductive performance. The aim of this study was to identify changes in feeding and social behavior at the feed bunk, as well as changes in lying behavior before metritis diagnosis. Initially healthy Holstein cows were followed from 3 wk before to 3 wk after calving. Behaviors at the feed bunk were recorded using an electronic feeding system. Lying behavior was recorded using data loggers. Metritis, based upon the characteristics of vaginal discharge at d 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 after calving, was diagnosed in 74 otherwise healthy cows. Behavior of these cows, beginning 2 wk before calving until the day of diagnosis, was compared with 98 healthy cows (never diagnosed with any health disorder, including ketosis, mastitis, and lameness) during the transition period. During the 2 wk before calving, cows later diagnosed with metritis had reduced lying time and fewer lying bouts compared with healthy cows. In the 3 d before clinical diagnosis, cows that developed metritis ate less, consumed fewer meals, were replaced more often at the feed bunk, and had fewer lying bouts of longer duration compared with healthy cows. We concluded that changes in feeding as well as social and lying behavior could contribute to identification of cows at risk of metritis., (Copyright © 2018 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Dairy cows with metritis display sickness behaviors, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) have the potential to reduce these responses. The objective of this study was to investigate changes in feeding, social, and lying behaviors in dairy cows with metritis that had been treated with the NSAID meloxicam. After parturition, cows were housed in a dynamic, mixed-parity group of 20 animals with access to 12 electronic feed bins, 2 electronic water bins, and 24 lying stalls in a freestall pen. Every third day after parturition, vaginal discharge was evaluated to diagnose metritis based on the presence of foul smell and characteristic visual appearance. When diagnosed with metritis, animals (n = 87) were randomly allocated to receive either a single dose of meloxicam (0.5 mg/kg of body weight subcutaneously) or a placebo solution. All metritic animals received an antimicrobial (ceftiofur) for 5 d. We measured feeding and social behaviors at the feed bunk, as well as lying behaviors, and assessed within-cow changes from the day before to the day of (d 0) NSAID treatment, and from the day before to d 1 to 5 after treatment. Generally, behaviors changed around the day of diagnosis of metritis. Compared with the placebo group, cows that received meloxicam had a greater increase in the number of visits to the feeder, but tended to show less of an increase in dry matter intake and feeding time. These differences did not persist beyond 24 h after NSAID treatment. We observed no differences in changes in number of meals and feeding rate on d 0, but from d 1 to 5 cows treated with meloxicam had a lesser decrease in the number of meals and tended to have a greater decrease in feeding rate than did placebo-treated cows. In multiparous cows on d 0 and from d 1 to 5, meloxicam treatment was associated with decreased lying times. In primiparous cows, lying time changes were similar between treatments on d 0, but lying times increased more on d 1 to 5 for meloxicam than for placebo cows. Overall, cows changed the number of lying bouts on d 0, and this increase tended to be smaller for the meloxicam cows. There were no treatment differences in changes of social behavior. In summary, we observed inconsistent and generally small effects of a single dose of meloxicam in addition to antimicrobial therapy on the behavior of cows with metritis., (Copyright © 2018 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The objectives of this study were: (1) to describe the rumination and feeding behavior of freestall-housed Holstein dairy cows in the weeks around parturition, and (2) to determine the relationship between postpartum disease and precalving rumination and feeding behavior. Eighty cows were enrolled at approximately 2wk (18±7d, mean ± standard deviation) before calving. Using automatic monitoring systems, rumination and feeding behavior were recorded continuously from 10d before until 3wk after calving. Postpartum health checks were performed each day, and metritis assessment was conducted 2 times/wk. Blood β-hydroxybutyrate was measured 3 times/week, and cows with ≥1.2mmol/L during the first 14d postpartum were diagnosed as having subclinical ketosis. The final data set included 64 cows in 5 groups: healthy (n=20), metritis (n=18), subclinical ketosis (SCK; n=9), metritis+SCK (n=9), and >1 health problem and not included before (MULT, n=8). We compared rumination and feeding data between healthy cows and the 4 categories of ill animals in each of 4 periods relative to calving: precalving (d -7 to -2), period 1 (d 3 to 8 postpartum), period 2 (d 9 to 14 postpartum), and period 3 (d 15 to 20 postpartum). Cows with SCK spent less time ruminating during the precalving period. Compared with healthy cows, those with SCK and metritis+SCK had lower dry matter intake during the precalving period and continued to eat less until d 14 and d 20 postpartum, respectively. Cows with metritis and MULT cows had lower dry matter intake during the first 2wk postpartum. Precalving feeding time was lower for SCK, metritis+SCK, and MULT cows compared with healthy cows. The difference in feeding time between healthy and metritis+SCK cows had disappeared by period 2 and between all health categories except MULT by period 3. MULT cows visited the feed bins less often and were less often replaced at the feed bin throughout all 4 periods of the study. Automatic monitoring of intake and rumination showed promise for the detection of health problems after calving. We observed differences in precalving rumination and feeding behavior. Further research is necessary to better understand the onset of behavioral changes and the relationship between rumination and disease., (Copyright © 2016 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Cows that are unable or unwilling to stand and remain recumbent for ≥ 12 h are defined as nonambulatory. Care and management of nonambulatory cattle is considered a major animal welfare concern facing the livestock industry, particularly the dairy sector. Flotation therapy has gained interest as a means to promote recovery in nonambulatory cows and is based on the concept that by floating the cow in warm water, secondary pressure damage to muscles and nerves will be reduced. The objective of this study was to assess the physiological responses to stress related to the flotation therapy and to evaluate the effect of recumbency duration and nursing care on the outcome of the flotation therapy. The outcomes of 34 nonambulatory Holstein dairy cows were analyzed after they were subjected to flotation therapy. The duration of recumbency and quality of nursing care provided before initiation of the flotation treatment were assessed based on producer responses to survey questions, and from on-site observations by the researchers. A veterinarian examined all cows before flotation therapy began. The treatment was divided into 5 phases: baseline (before filling), manipulation (placing the cow into the tank), filling (the tank was filled with water), flotation (the cow was confined in the filled tank), and draining (water was removed from the tank). Stress responses to the procedure, excluding the manipulation portion, were assessed using heart rate variability. The high-frequency component (HF normalized units) decreased during the filling and draining phases (2.8 ± 0.2 and 3.1 ± 0.4, respectively) compared with the baseline and floating phase (5.1 ± 0.6 and 4.9 ± 0.3, [corrected] respectively). These results indicate that the stress related to the flotation therapy is greatest during the filling and draining phases of the treatment, when cows likely have to exert increased effort to transition to a standing position. The flotation therapy was less likely to be successful on cows that had been recumbent for longer periods (odds ratio=0.96; 95% CI=0.93-0.99, for every 1-h increase in time recumbent before the therapy began). Higher quality of nursing care provided to nonambulatory cows increased the chance of recovery. In conclusion, cows subjected to flotation therapy were more likely to recover if they were treated at early stage of recumbency and if good nursing care was provided while recumbent., (Copyright © 2016 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Metritis is a common disease in dairy cattle, but to our knowledge, no work has assessed pain associated with this disease. Tissue palpation is commonly used to assess pain in human and veterinary medicine. The objective of this study was to evaluate visceral pain responses during rectal palpation, with and without uterine palpation, in healthy cows and in cows diagnosed with metritis. A total of 49 Holstein dairy cows (mean ± standard deviation parity of 2.8±1.8) were subjected to systematic health checks every 3 d after parturition for 21 d, scoring for vaginal discharge (0 to 4); 13 cows showed a discharge score ≥2 during at least 1 health check and were classified as metritic, whereas 29 cows were classified as healthy and showed no sign of this or any other disease (including mastitis and lameness). Back arch and heart rate variability before examination and during palpation were recorded using video and heart rate monitors. Back arch (cm(2)) on the day of diagnosis was greater in metritic versus healthy cows (1,034±72 vs. 612±48cm(2)), and greater during rectal palpation with uterine palpation versus rectal palpation without uterine palpation (869±45 vs. 777±45cm(2)). Heart rate frequency domain analysis showed that the low-frequency portion was higher in cows with metritis versus healthy cows (16.5±1.2 vs. 12.9±1.0). Time domain analysis showed that the standard deviation between normal to normal interbeat intervals and the root mean square of successive differences both decreased during rectal palpation with uterine palpation versus rectal palpation without uterine palpation (1.9±0.1 vs. 2.5±0.1 and 1.3±0.1 vs. 1.7±0.1, respectively). Together, these results indicate that the inflammation associated with metritis is painful, and that the pain response can be detected during rectal palpation with and without uterine palpation. Rectal palpation with uterine palpation appears to be more aversive than rectal palpation without uterine palpation, suggesting that the former should be avoided when possible., (Copyright © 2015 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The objectives of this study were to describe the incidence of postpartum disease and to evaluate the association with serum cholesterol concentrations during the first 3 weeks after calving in grazing dairy cows. The association between non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA), calcium and postpartum diseases was also evaluated. A total of 307 Holstein dairy cows from 6 commercial grazing herds in Osorno, Chile, were monitored from calving until 21 days in milk. Cases of retained placenta, clinical hypocalcemia and clinical mastitis were recorded by the farmer using established definitions. Twice weekly, cows were evaluated for metritis by the same veterinarian based on vaginal discharge and body temperature. Postpartum blood samples were collected weekly and analyzed for serum concentrations of cholesterol, NEFA, BHBA and calcium. Cows were considered as having subclinical ketosis if BHBA >1.2 mmol/L, and subclinical hypocalcemia if calcium <2.0 mmol/L in any of the 3 weekly samples. Overall, 56% of the cows studied developed at least one clinical or subclinical disease after calving. Incidence of individual diseases was 8.8% for retained placenta, 4.2% for clinical hypocalcemia, 11.7% for clinical mastitis, 41.1% for metritis, 19.9% for subclinical hypocalcemia and 16.6% for subclinical ketosis. Lower postpartum cholesterol in cows was associated with developing severe metritis or having more than one clinical disease after calving. For every 0.4 mmol/L decrease in serum cholesterol cows were nearly twice as likely to be diagnosed with multiple clinical diseases after calving. Higher BHBA concentrations and lower calcium concentrations during week 1 were associated with severe cases of metritis. Low serum calcium concentration during week 1 was also associated with developing more than one clinical disorder after calving. In conclusion, the incidence of postpartum diseases can be high even in grazing herds and lower serum cholesterol concentrations were associated with occurrence of clinical postpatum disorders.

Ketosis is a common disease in dairy cattle, especially in the days after calving, and it is often undiagnosed. The objective of this study was to compare the standing behavior of dairy cows with and without ketosis during the days around calving to determine if changes in this behavior could be useful in the early identification of sick cows. Serum β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA) was measured in 184 cows on a commercial dairy farm twice weekly from 2 to 21d after calving. Standing behavior was measured from 7d before calving to 21d after calving using data loggers. Retrospectively, 15 cows with clinical ketosis (3 consecutive BHBA samples >1.2mmol/L and at least one sample of BHBA >2.9mmol/L) were matched with 15 nonketotic cows (BHBA <1.2mmol/L). Five periods were defined for the statistical analyses: wk -1 (d -7 to -1), d 0 (day of calving), wk +1 (d 1 to 7), wk +2 (d 8 to 14), and wk +3 (d 15 to 21). The first signs of clinical ketosis occurred 4.5±2.1d after calving. Total daily standing time was longer for clinically ketotic cows compared with nonketotic cows during wk -1 (14.3±0.6 vs. 12.0±0.7h/d) and on d 0 (17.2±0.9 vs. 12.7±0.9h/d) but did not differ during the other periods. Clinically ketotic cows exhibited fewer standing bouts compared with nonketotic cows on d 0 only (14.6±1.9 vs. 20.9±1.8bouts/d). Average standing bout duration was also longer for clinically ketotic cows on d 0 compared with nonketotic cows [71.3min/bout (CI: 59.3 to 85.5) vs. 35.8min/bout (CI: 29.8 to 42.9)] but was not different during the other periods. Differences in standing behavior in the week before and on the day of calving may be useful for the early detection of clinical ketosis in dairy cows., (Copyright © 2015 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Lameness and hock injuries are recognized welfare and production problems in the dairy industry. The objective of this study was to describe changes in the prevalence of these ailments in 15 freestall herds in the Northeastern United States that participated in an on-farm assessment program. Prevalence was assessed in a high-producing pen in each herd. A confidential report was delivered to each of the farms showing prevalence in relation to other herds assessed within the same region. The average (±SD) period between visits was 11.5 ± 4.4 months (range, 8-25 months). The prevalence of lameness decreased in most herds after the first assessment (mean difference ± SE [range] = -17 ± 4 % [-43 to 6]). An even larger improvement was seen in the prevalence of hock injuries with all farms showing a decrease (-38 ± 6% [-1 to -87]). The degree of improvement observed at the second assessment was greatest for those farms that had higher lameness prevalence when first assessed, but this was not the case for hock injuries. The changes in prevalence of clinical lameness and overall hock lesions were, however, correlated (ρ = 0.62). These results suggest that monitoring and reporting the prevalence of lameness and hock injuries to farmers can motivate changes in facilities and management targeted to address these ailments., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Many cows have difficulty making the transition from pregnancy to lactation, as evidenced by the high incidence of disease that occurs in the weeks after calving. Changes in lying behavior can be used as an indicator of illness, yet no work to date has evaluated this relationship in dairy cows on pasture. The objectives of this study were to describe the lying behavior of grazing dairy cows during the first 3 wk after calving and determine the relationships between transition diseases and lying behavior. Our convenience sample included 227 multiparous and 47 primiparous Holstein cows from 6 commercial farms. Cows were recruited as they calved during the spring calving period. Electronic data loggers (Hobo Pendant G Acceleration, Onset Computer Corp., Pocasset, MA) recorded lying behavior at 1-min intervals. Diseases were recorded up to 21 d in milk, and cows were subsequently categorized into 3 health categories: (1) healthy, not lame and had no other signs of clinical (retained placenta, milk fever, metritis, mastitis) or subclinical (ketosis, hypocalcemia) postpartum diseases; (2) lame, identified as being clinically or severely lame with no other signs of clinical or subclinical postpartum disease; and (3) sick, diagnosed as having one or more clinical postpartum diseases (with or without a subclinical disease) but not lame. This last group was further divided into 2 groups: those that were diagnosed with a single clinical health event and those diagnosed with more than one clinical event. Lying behavior differed between primiparous and multiparous cows; primiparous cows divided their lying time into more bouts than did multiparous cows (9.7 ± 0.54 vs. 8.4 ± 0.26 bouts/d) and spent less time lying down than multiparous cows (7.5 ± 0.38 h/d vs. 8.5 ± 0.19 h/d). Lying behavior was also affected by illness; primiparous cows that developed more than one clinical disease, excluding lameness, spent more time lying, and tended to have longer lying bouts in the days following calving compared with healthy cows; multiparous severely lame cows spent more time lying down (1.7 h longer per day) compared with multiparous cows that were nonlame. Clinically lame cows had fewer lying bouts per day and these bouts were of longer duration than healthy nonlame cows. In summary, changes in lying behavior after calving were associated with postpartum health status in grazing dairy cows., (Copyright © 2014 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The objective was to investigate the association between herd-level management and facility design and the prevalence of lameness and hock injuries in high-producing dairy cows on commercial freestall farms in China. Housing and management measures, such as stall design, bedding type, and milking routine were collected for the high-producing pen in 34 farms in China. All cows in the pen were gait scored using a 5-point scale, and evaluated for hock injuries using a 3-point scale. Measures associated with the proportion of clinically (score ≥3) or severely (score ≥4) lame cows, and the proportion of cows having at least a minor hock injury (score ≥2) or severe injury (score=3) at the univariable level were submitted to multivariable general linear models. The prevalence [mean ± SD (range)] of clinical and severe lameness were 31 ± 12 (7-51) and 10 ± 6% (0- 27%), respectively, and the prevalence of cows with at least a minor hock injury and with severe injuries was 40 ± 20 (6 - 95) and 5 ± 9% (0 - 50%), respectively. The prevalence of clinical lameness and severe lameness decreased with herd size (estimate=-0.35 ± 0.09% for a 100-cow increase for clinical lameness; estimate=0.15 ± 0.06% for a 100-cow increase for severe lameness). Prevalence increased with barn age >9 yr (estimate=12.73 ± 4.42% for clinical lameness; estimate=5.79 ± 2.89% for severe lameness). These 2 variables combined explained 49% of the variation in clinical lameness and 30% of the variation in severe lameness. The prevalence of all hock injuries and severe hock injuries decreased with deep bedding (estimate=-20.90 ± 5.66% for all hock injuries; estimate=-3.65 ± 1.41% for severe hock injuries) and increased with barn age >9 yr (estimate=16.68 ± 7.17% for all hock injuries; estimate=6.95 ± 1.75% for severe injuries). These 2 variables explained 52 and 58% of the variation, respectively. In conclusion, large variation existed across farms in prevalence of lameness and hock injuries. Changes in housing and management may help control the prevalence of lameness and hock injuries in the emerging dairy industry in China., (Copyright © 2014 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Dairy cows are typically gregarious, but isolate themselves in the hours before calving when kept on pasture. Self-isolation is also a common behavior of ill animals. The objectives of this study were to determine if dairy cows would (1) isolate to calve when housed indoors in an individual maternity pen and (2) continue to isolate when ill after calving. We selected individuals from a pool of 79 multiparous Holstein dairy cows based on inclusion criteria created to address each objective. Cows were moved from a group pen to 1 of 10 adjacent maternity pens. Half of these individual pens were partially covered with plywood, creating a secluded corner as well as a window that provided visual access to the group pen. The other individual pens were uncovered on all sides. For our first objective, we selected 39 cows that were moved into the maternity pens >8h before calving (partially covered: n=19; uncovered: n=20). For our second objective, we selected 18 cows housed in the partially covered pens: 9 cows with high rectal temperature after calving and signs of an infectious disease (mastitis, metritis, pneumonia, or some combination), and 9 healthy cows paired with ill cows based on the amount of time they spent in the maternity pen before calving. Ten-minute scan sampling was used to record the location and lying time from 6h before to 72 h after calving. Individual feed intake was measured after calving. Binomial tests were used to determine if cows in both pen types were more likely to calve in the corner or window side of the pen. Repeated-measures ANOVA were used to determine if cows used the corner more as calving approached and if ill cows spent more time lying or more time in the corner compared with healthy cows in the 72 h after calving. Cows in the uncovered pens were equally likely to calve on both sides of the pen (10 vs. 10), but 79% of cows in the partially covered pens calved on the corner side of the pen (15 vs. 4). Cows in the partially covered pens used the corner side of the pen more in the 1h before and after calving compared with those housed in the uncovered pens. Ill cows housed in the partially covered pens ate less, tended to spend more time lying down, and spent more time in the corner of the pen compared with healthy cows. These results indicate that periparturient dairy cows seek seclusion to calve and when ill, which suggests that adding a secluded area to maternity and hospital pens may be beneficial., (Copyright © 2014 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Our objective was to investigate the associations between herd-level factors and lying behavior of high-producing dairy cows housed in freestall barns. Lying behavior of approximately 40 focal cows in one high-producing pen was monitored on each of 40 farms in the northeastern United States (NE) and 39 farms in California (CA). All cows within the pen were gait scored using a 1-to-5 scale to calculate the prevalence of clinical lameness (score ≥3) and severe lameness (score ≥4). Facility and management measures, including stall design, bedding, and flooring type within the pen, were collected. Herd-level factors associated with daily lying time, standard deviation (SD) of daily lying time, frequency of lying bouts, and lying bout duration at the univariate level were submitted to multivariable general linear models. In the NE, daily lying time increased with the use of deep bedding (estimate = 0.80±0.31h/d) and as average days in milk (DIM) of the focal cows increased (estimate = 0.08±0.04h/d for a 10-d increase in DIM). The SD of daily lying time decreased as stall stocking density increased (estimate = -0.08±0.03h/d for a 10% increase), and increased with the presence of rubber flooring in the pen (estimate = 0.16±0.08h/d) and percentage of stalls with fecal contamination (estimate = 0.04±0.01h/d for a 10% increase). Frequency of lying bouts decreased (estimate = -1.90±0.63 bouts/d) and average bout duration increased (estimate = 15.44±3.02 min) with the use of deep bedding. In CA, where all farms used deep bedding, daily lying time increased as average DIM of the focal cows increased (estimate = 0.08±0.03h/d for a 10-d increase). The SD of daily lying time decreased when feed was delivered more than once per day (estimate = -0.24±0.08h/d). The percentage of lame cows was correlated with the percentage of stalls with fecal contamination (r=0.45), which in turn was associated with fewer (estimate = -0.25±0.06 bouts/d) and longer lying bouts (estimate = 1.85±0.39 min/d). These findings suggest that lying time be interpreted in conjunction with variability in lying time and bout structure and in context with lameness prevalence, production parameters, and facility characteristics., (Copyright © 2014 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The aim of this study was to investigate the associations between management and facility design factors and the prevalence of hock injuries in high-producing dairy cows in 76 freestall herds in the northeastern United States (NE-US; Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania) and California (CA). One group of high-production multiparous cows was monitored on each farm, and data on management, facility and stall design, and the conditions of the hocks were collected. Focal cows [n=38 ± 3 (mean ± standard deviation)] were evaluated for hock injuries using a 3-point scale (where 1=healthy and 3=evidently swollen or severe injury). Measures associated with the proportion (logit-transformed) of cows having injuries (score ≥ 2) or severe injuries (score=3) at the univariable level were submitted to multivariable general linear models. In NE-US, overall hock injuries increased with the percentage of stalls with fecal contamination [odds ratio (OR)=1.26; 95% confidence interval (CI)=1.02-1.54, for a 10% increase], and with the use of sawdust as bedding (OR=3.47; CI=1.14-10.62), and decreased with deep bedding (i.e., at least 10 cm depth of any type of bedding; OR=0.05; CI=0.02-0.14), use of sand as bedding (OR=0.06; CI=0.02-0.15), bedding dry matter (DM) ≥ 83.9% (OR=0.08; CI=0.03-0.20), and access to pasture during the dry period (OR=0.17; CI=0.05-0.53). When these variables were submitted to a multivariable model, the presence of deep bedding was the only factor that remained significant, explaining 54% of the variation in overall injuries. Severe hock injuries increased with the use of automatic scrapers (OR=2.29; CI=1.11-4.71) and the percentage of stalls with fecal contamination (OR=1.14; CI=1.00-1.31, for a 10% increase), and decreased with sand bedding (OR=0.22; CI=0.10-0.49), deep bedding (OR=0.24; CI=0.11-0.52), bedding DM ≥ 83.9% (OR=0.28; CI=0.14-0.58), and access to pasture during the dry period (OR=0.42; CI=0.18-0.97). The final multivariable model, which explained 36% of the variation in severe hock injuries, included the use of automatic scrapers and deep bedding. In CA, stall stocking density (OR=1.41; CI=1.00-2.01, for a 10% increase) and poor bedding maintenance (OR=1.08; CI=1.01-1.16, for a 2.5-cm decrease in depth of deep-bedded stalls) were associated with an increase of overall and severe hock injuries, respectively. Deep-bedded and well-maintained stalls reduce the risk of hock injuries. Regional variation in risk factors for these injuries should be considered when formulating on-farm recommendations., (Copyright © 2013 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

A common feeding practice during the dry period is to switch dairy cows to an energy-dense diet 3 wk prepartum, but this practice may lead to the overconsumption of energy and increase the risk of metabolic disease postpartum. The aim of this trial was to compare the metabolic status of transition Holstein dairy cows fed a 77% forage diet (77F; NEl = 1.46 Mcal/kg; NDF = 41%) vs. those fed an 87% forage diet (87F; NEl = 1.41 Mcal/kg; 48% NDF). Approximately 60 d before calving, cows were dried off, housed in a free stall barn, and fed the 87F diet. Three weeks before expected calving, cows were randomly assigned to either the 77F treatment and switched to this diet (n = 45) or assigned to the 87F treatment and stayed on the dry cow ration until parturition (n = 42). After parturition, all cows were fed a common lactation diet (NEl = 1.59 Mcal/kg; 36% NDF). Dry matter intake was measured daily from 2 wk before to 2 wk after calving. Blood was sampled daily for 10 d postpartum. Subclinical ketosis was diagnosed using a threshold of β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA) ≥ 1.0 mmol/L after calving. The percentage of cows pregnant and odds of being pregnant for each treatment group were determined at 60, 90, and 120 d in milk through ultrasound by the herd veterinarian. Cows on the 87F diet consumed less DM prepartum than those on the 77F diet (12.7 ± 0.3 kg/d vs. 15.4 ± 0.3 kg/d, P < 0.001), but no difference in DMI was detected after calving (19.7 ± 5.5 kg/d; P = 0.87). Although the calculated prepartum required energy intake was the same for the 2 treatments (15.3 ± 1.2 Mcal/d; P = 0.16), cows on the 77F diet consumed 4.5 Mcal/d more than those on the 87F diet (22.5 ± 0.5 Mcal/d vs. 18.0 ± 0.5 Mcal/d; P < 0.001). Postpartum concentration of BHBA was less for cows fed the 87F diet prepartum (0.49 ± 0.02 mmol/L vs. 0.59 ± 0.02 mmol/L; P = 0.02), and fewer animals on this diet were diagnosed subclinical ketosis (SCK; 49% vs. 17%; P = 0.001). Milk production tended to be less for cows fed the 87F diet prepartum (47.3 ± 0.4 kg/d vs. 48.8 ± 0.4 kg/d; P = 0.10) for the first 22 wk of lactation, which was significant for d 7 to 28 of lactation (44.6 ± 1.1 kg/d vs. 47.6 ± 1.0 kg/d; P = 0.05). Although sample size was small to draw strong conclusions on reproductive performance, at 120 d in milk, cows on the 87F diet were 0.3 times more likely to be pregnant (P = 0.03). These results indicate that feeding an 87F diet before calving can reduce rates of SCK in transition dairy cows.

The objectives of this study were to describe herd-level reproductive outcomes and their associations with the prevalence of lameness, hock injuries and knee injuries in freestall dairy herds in the northeastern United States. Five reproductive outcomes (calving to conception interval, CCI; calving interval, CI; conception risk at the first artificial insemination, CR1; insemination rate, IR; and pregnancy rate, PR) were measured from Dairy Comp 305 (Valley Agricultural Software, Tulare, CA) for a 12-mo period for all multiparous cows in each of the 53 herds assessed. The prevalence of lameness, hock injuries, and knee injuries was assessed in 1 high-producing group. The means (± standard deviation) for the 5 reproductive outcomes were as follows: CCI = 128 ± 10 d, CI = 404 ± 10 d, CR1 = 36 ± 5%, IR = 60 ± 7%, and PR = 20 ± 3%. The average prevalence of clinical lameness, hock injuries, and knee injuries were 45 ± 20%, 58 ± 31%, and 16 ± 15%, respectively. Univariable associations between the reproductive outcomes and the prevalence of lameness and leg injuries were tested and significant predictors were submitted to a model that controlled for the confounding effects of herd size, 305-d mature equivalent milk production of the high-producing group, and use of deep bedding. A higher prevalence of lameness was associated with poorer reproductive performance, although the relationships were weak: herds with a higher prevalence of lameness had longer average CCI (slope estimate = 0.16 ± 0.07; R(2)= 0.09) and CI (slope estimate = 0.14 ± 0.07; R(2) = 0.07). These results indicate that management to reduce lameness may improve reproductive performance., (Copyright © 2013 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The objective was to investigate the association between herd-level management and facility design factors and the prevalence of lameness in high-producing dairy cows in freestall herds in the northeastern United States (NE; Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania) and California (CA). Housing and management measures such as pen space, stall design, bedding type, and milking routine were collected for the high-producing pen in 40 farms in NE and 39 farms in CA. All cows in the pen were gait scored using a 1-to-5 scale and classified as clinically lame (score ≥3) or severely lame (score ≥4). Measures associated with the (logit-transformed) proportion of clinically or severely lame cows at the univariable level were submitted to multivariable general linear models. In NE, lameness increased on farms that used sawdust bedding [odds ratio (OR)=1.71; 95% confidence interval (CI)=1.06-2.76] and decreased with herd size (OR=0.94; CI=0.90-0.97, for a 100-cow increase), use of deep bedding (OR=0.48; CI=0.29-0.79), and access to pasture (OR=0.52; CI=0.32-0.85). The multivariable model included herd size, access to pasture, and provision of deep bedding, and explained 50% of the variation in clinical lameness. Severe lameness increased with the percentage of stalls with fecal contamination (OR=1.15; CI=1.06-1.25, for a 10% increase) and with use of sawdust bedding (OR=2.13; CI=1.31-3.47), and decreased with use of deep bedding (OR=0.31; CI=0.19-0.50), sand bedding (OR=0.32; CI=0.19-0.53), herd size (OR=0.93; CI=-0.89-0.97, for a 100-cow increase), and rearing replacement heifers on site (OR=0.57; CI=0.32-0.99). The multivariable model included deep bedding and herd size, and explained 59% of the variation of severe lameness. In CA, clinical lameness increased with the percentage of stalls containing fecal contamination (OR=1.15; CI=1.05-1.26, for a 10% increase), and decreased with herd size (OR=0.96; CI=0.94-0.99, for a 100-cow increase), presence of rubber in the alley to the milking parlor (OR=0.46; CI=0.28-0.76), distance of the neck rail from the rear curb (OR=0.97; CI=0.95-0.99, for a 1-cm increase), water space per cow (OR=0.92; CI=0.85-0.99, for a 1-cm increase), and increased frequency of footbaths per week (OR=0.90; CI=081-0.99, for a 1-unit increase). The multivariable model included herd size, percentage of stalls containing fecal contamination, and presence of rubber in the alley to the milking parlor, and explained 44% of the variation of clinical lameness. Severe lameness increased with the percentage of stalls containing fecal contamination (OR=1.23; CI=1.06-1.42, for a 10% increase) and decreased with frequency of manure removal in the pen per day (OR=0.72; CI=0.53-0.97, for a 1-unit increase). The final model included both variables and explained 28% of the variation in severe lameness. In conclusion, changes in housing and management may help decrease the prevalence of lameness on dairy farms, but key risk factors vary across regions., (Copyright © 2013 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Metritis, a common transition disease in dairy cows, reduces milk production during the duration of the disease. To our knowledge, no work has investigated the short-term effects of metritis on feed intake and the long-term consequences on milk yield and risk of culling. The objectives were to determine the effect of metritis on 305-d lactation curves, dry matter intake (DMI), reproduction, and the probability of being culled. Identifying differences in response to metritis between primiparous and multiparous cows was of interest. Milk records were collected twice daily from Holstein cows diagnosed with puerperal metritis (11 primiparous and 16 multiparous) or classified as healthy (14 primiparous and 43 multiparous) during the first 3 wk after calving. Metritic cows were treated at the discretion of the herd veterinarian. Lactation curves of healthy and metritic cows were compared using a mixed model with a Wilmink function. Differences in DMI, days open, and the number of services per conception were assessed using mixed models. The probabilities that cows with and without metritis were not bred, were bred but never confirmed pregnant, or were culled were compared using Fisher's exact tests. Primiparous and multiparous animals were assessed separately. Multiparous cows with metritis produced less milk (35.1±1.5 vs. 39.2±1.0 kg/d), ate less during the 3 wk after calving (12.2±1.2 vs.14.0±0.8 kg/d), and were more likely to be culled (50.0%) than healthy cows (20.9%). The decision to cull was likely influenced by the lower milk yield in early lactation as a result of metritis; the decision to cull was made early, as 7 of the 8 culled metritic cows were not bred. No differences were found in any measurement between primiparous cows with and without metritis. These results indicate that metritis in early lactation has long-term effects on multiparous cows but not primiparous cows., (Copyright © 2011 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Claw horn lesions, including sole hemorrhages and sole ulcers, are a major cause of lameness in dairy cattle. These lesions often develop in the weeks around calving and become visible 8 to 12 wk later. The aim was to determine whether cows that are diagnosed with claw horn lesions several weeks after calving behave differently during the calving period when the lesions are thought to first develop. The claws of 26 multiparous Holstein dairy cows were scored for sole hemorrhage severity and presence of sole ulcers 2 wk before calving, 3 wk after calving, and every 4 wk thereafter until 15 wk after calving. Of the 26 cows, 13 cows had no or low lesion scores up to 15 wk and 13 cows had at least 1 new severe lesion or sole ulcer diagnosed between 7 and 15 wk after calving. Behavior (dry matter intake, feeding time and rate, number and size of meals, standing time, number and duration of standing bouts, location of standing, and displacements at the feed bunk) was recorded from 2 wk before calving to 3 wk after calving. Behavior during the 2 wk before calving, first 24h after calving, 1 wk after calving, and 2 to 3 wk after calving was compared between cows with and without lesions in mid lactation. Multivariate regression was used to determine the predictive value of each behavior and combination of behaviors on lesion diagnosis. Cows diagnosed with lesions in mid lactation spent more time standing than cows without lesions during the 2 wk before (832+/-29 vs. 711+/-29 min/d) and 24 h after (935+/-46 vs. 693+/-46 min/d) calving. These differences were driven by an increase in the time spent perching with front feet in the stall (241+/-22 vs. 147+/-22 min/d at 2 wk before calving) and an increase in standing bout duration (101+/-10 vs. 56+/-10 min/bout at 24 h after calving). Compared with cows without lesions, cows with lesions consumed feed at a faster rate (86+/-3 vs. 77+/-3 g/min) during the 2 wk before calving and consumed more feed (17.9+/-0.9 vs. 12.3+/-0.9 kg/d) during the 24 h after calving. The number of displacements at the feeder was not different between groups. These results indicate that a combination of feeding and standing behavior during the transition can serve as early indicators of claw horn lesions in mid lactation., (Copyright (c) 2010 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Lameness is widely recognized as one of the most serious welfare and production concerns in the dairy industry. Our objectives were to evaluate the associations between lying behavior and lameness, and to determine whether lying behavior can be used as a diagnostic tool for lameness. Electronic data loggers recorded lying behavior of 1,319 cows from 28 farms at 1-min intervals for 5 d. These cows were gait scored according to a 5-point Numerical Rating System (NRS), and categorized as NRS or=3) and SEVLAME (NRS=4). Data were divided into 2 groups: 11 farms using deep-bedded stalls (DB) and 17 farms using mattress stalls (MAT). Differences in the daily lying time (h/d), frequency of lying bouts (n/d), duration of lying bouts (min/bout), and the standard deviation of bout duration (min/bout) between LAME or SEVLAME cows and those that were not were tested using mixed models. Receiver operating characteristic curves were constructed to identify behavioral thresholds to distinguish SEVLAME cows from the rest. Odds ratios for SEVLAME were estimated using logistic regression. Overall, 28.5% of cows were LAME including 7.3% that were SEVLAME. The prevalence of SEVLAME was higher on MAT farms than on DB farms (9.3+/-1.3 vs. 4.4+/-1.2%, respectively). SEVLAME cows on DB farms spent 12.8 [confidence interval (CI): 12.0 to 13.7] h/d lying down compared with 11.2 (CI: 10.7 to 11.8) h/d for cows that were not SEVLAME. These cows had longer duration of lying bouts [95.3 (CI: 84.6 to 107.3) vs. 80.3 (CI: 74.9 to 86.1) min/bout] and greater SD of bout duration [44.4 (CI: 41.1 to 48.0) vs. 50.7 (CI: 44.1 to 58.3) min/bout]. There were no behavioral differences among lameness categories on MAT farms. Within DB farms, cows with lying times >14.5 h/d had 16.2 (5.8 to 45.2) times higher odds of being SEVLAME. Cows with average lying bouts >90 min/bout were at 3.0 (1.2 to 7.4) times higher odds of being SEVLAME, and cows with average SD of bout duration >55 min/bout were at 4.1 (1.7 to 9.9) times higher odds of being SEVLAME. These results show that high lying times, long lying bouts, and variability in the duration of lying bouts were associated with lameness, and that stall surface influenced the behavioral responses of lame cows., (Copyright (c) 2010 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Heel erosion is the most prevalent hoof lesion in housed dairy herds, particularly in freestall facilities. It is associated with hoof contact with manure slurry and abrasive floors. The objective was to assess changes in the risk of heel erosion from the dry period to mid lactation in primiparous and multiparous dairy cows. Nineteen pregnant primiparous cows, 22 late-lactation multiparous cows (parity=3.2+/-1.4; days in milk=221+/-38), and 16 nonlactating, pregnant multiparous cows (parity=3.7+/-1.4) housed in a freestall barn with concrete flooring were followed until mid lactation. The hind hooves of all the cows were examined approximately every 7 wk and heel erosion was scored. Multiparous cows more likely had heel erosion than primiparous cows (odds ratio=11.0; 95% confidence interval=3.7, 32.7). Time relative to calving showed a significant quadratic effect, revealing that the risk of heel erosion increased more rapidly as lactation progressed. Survival analysis showed that multiparous cows had a higher relative risk of developing heel erosion than primiparous cows (hazard ratio=3.4). No cows improved between early and mid lactation, but 18 cows worsened. In conclusion, stage of lactation and parity were major risk factors for severe heel erosion in dairy cattle housed in freestalls., (Copyright (c) 2010 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Cows diagnosed with subclinical ketosis (SCK) after calving are at increased risk of developing other diseases and compromised reproductive performance. The objective of this study was to determine whether changes in feeding and social behaviors during the transition period were associated with SCK during the week after calving. Feeding behaviors of 101 Holstein dairy cows were monitored from 3 wk before to 3 wk after calving. Ten otherwise healthy animals were identified as having SCK by serum beta-hydroxybutyrate levels >or=1,000 micromol/L taken during wk +1. These animals were matched by parity with 10 healthy animals. During the week before calving and the 2 wk after calving, animals with SCK had lower dry matter intake, had fewer visits to the feeder, and spent less time at the feeder than healthy animals. For every 10-min decrease in average daily time spent at the feeder during the week before calving, the risk of SCK increased by 1.9 times. During the same week, a 1-kg decrease in average daily dry matter intake increased the risk of SCK by 2.2 times. The largest increase in risk of SCK was associated with a 1-kg increase in the change in average daily intake from wk -2 to -1. During the week before calving, animals with SCK initiated fewer displacements at the feed bunk compared with animals that remained healthy after calving. The results of this study provide evidence that time spent feeding, dry matter intake, and social behavior play an important role in transition cow health. These results indicate that special consideration should be given to management and social factors that can negatively affect dry matter intake and feed bunk attendance during the transition period.

The objective was to determine whether changes in the different components of gait, walking speed, and lying behavior were associated with hoof pathologies in lactating Holstein cows. In experiment 1, 53 cows had their gait scored, their walking speed estimated, and their lying behavior monitored before clinical assessment of the hooves. Multiparous cows with ulcers scored higher than cows without ulcers for overall gait score [numerical rating score (NRS); 3.3 +/- 0.2 vs. 2.8 +/- 0.2], back arch, joint flexion, asymmetric steps, and reluctance to bear weight. Although cows with ulcers did not walk more slowly than cows without ulcers (1.4 m/s), they spent more time lying down (827.8 +/- 29.1 vs. 738.2 +/- 15.5 min/d) because of longer lying bouts (93.3 +/- 5.9 vs. 79.7 +/- 3.4 min). In experiment 2, 47 cows were monitored for hoof health and changes in gait score from 4 wk before to 24 wk after calving. Differences were found after calving between cows that developed an ulcer and cows that did not for NRS (3.1 +/- 0.1 vs. 2.35 +/- 0.1), back arch, joint flexion, asymmetric steps, and reluctance to bear weight. Numerical rating score, back arch, and asymmetric steps were able to discriminate cows with ulcers at least 4 wk before the diagnosis. Cows that developed a sole ulcer had a faster decline in lying time during the periparturient period and a faster increase beginning in wk 2 after calving. The NRS was a more consistent predictor of sole ulcers than lying behavior or speed. The NRS was able to discriminate cows with ulcers across studies at a high intraobserver accuracy and reasonable specificity and was able to predict the presence of ulcers at least 4 wk before diagnosis. Abduction/adduction of the rear legs, head bob, and tracking-up did not consistently discriminate cows with ulcers, and we suggest that these measures are less useful for on farm gait assessment. Compared with the other gait attributes, back arch, joint flexion, asymmetric steps, and reluctance to bear weight best predicted the presence of sole ulcers.

Housing conditions for dairy cows are thought to affect lameness, but almost no experimental work has addressed this link. The aim was to assess the effect of one feature of free-stall design, the position of the neck rail, testing the prediction that cows will be more likely to become lame if using pens with the neck rail positioned such that it prevents standing fully inside the stall. Cows (n = 32) were housed in 8 pens. Treatments were tested using a crossover design; treatments were allocated alternately to pens at the beginning of the experiment and switched halfway through the 10-wk experiment. Cows spent 27 +/- 3 min/d standing with all 4 feet in stalls with less restrictive neck rails. In contrast, cows averaged just 1 +/- 3 min/d when the neck rail was positioned restrictively. Cows spent less time standing with only the front 2 feet in the stall with less restrictive neck rails (33 vs. 49 +/- 6 min/d). Gait scores improved when cows were kept in the less restrictive stalls and worsened when cows were kept in pens with the restrictive neck rail (median score 2.5 vs. 3.5 after 5 wk on treatment). Of 13 new cases of lameness, 11 occurred in pens with the restrictive neck-rail position. Similarly, of the 16 new cases of sole lesions, 15 occurred during the period when cows were housed in pens with a restrictive neck rail. Stalls with the neck rail positioned less restrictively had higher contamination scores than stalls with the restrictive neck rails (3.7 vs. 0.4 +/- 0.2), and cows using those stalls had dirtier udders and longer teat-cleaning times (8.3 vs. 7.0 +/- 0.2 min for 12 cows). This study provides the first experimental evidence that aspects of stall design can reduce the risk of lameness and hoof disease. The results illustrated that changes in design that resulted in improvements in cow comfort and hoof health came at the expense of cow and stall cleanliness.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether haptoglobin (Hp) could be used as a predictive measure for metritis. Cattle were grouped into 3 health categories based on the condition of vaginal discharge and body temperature after calving: severe metritis (n = 12), mild metritis (n = 32), and healthy (n = 23). Blood was collected and analyzed for Hp concentration on d -20 +/- 5, -6 +/- 2, -2 +/- 1, and d 0 relative to calving, and then every 3 d after calving until d +21. Cows with mild and severe metritis had greater Hp concentrations than healthy cows between d 0 and d +12. Mean (+/-SE) Hp concentrations peaked on d +3 in the cows with mild metritis (1.06 +/- 0.15 g/L) and on d +6 in cows with severe metritis (1.62 +/- 0.47 g/L). Mean concentrations for the healthy group were 0.58 +/- 0.12 g/L and 0.31 +/- 0.08 g/L on d +3 and d +6, respectively. Clinical signs of pathological discharge for the mildly and severely metritic cows did not occur until, on average, 8.6 +/- 3.9 d and 5.3 +/- 1.9 d after calving, respectively. Cows with Hp concentrations >or=1 g/L on d +3 were 6.7 times more likely to develop severe or mild metritis; this predictive threshold has a sensitivity of 50% and specificity of 87%. These results indicate that an acute phase inflammatory response precedes clinical metritis and that Hp screening may assist in the early detection of metritis, providing increased opportunities for early treatment and prevention.

Pain associated with injuries of the hoof and surrounding tissues is an important cause of lameness. The objective was to detect the attributes of impaired gait that are associated with pain. In 3 separate experiments, lactating Holstein cows (n = 20; n = 21; n = 27) diagnosed with varying degrees of gait impairment were injected i.m. (Exp. 1 and 2) or i.v. (Exp. 3) with the analgesic ketoprofen at 0, 0.3, 1.5, or 3.0 mg/kg of BW. Gait was evaluated subjectively using a numerical rating system (NRS; varying from 1 to 5) and 6 specific gait attributes (back arch, tracking up, joint flexion, asymmetric steps, head bob, and reluctance to bear weight). Each experiment was divided into 3 phases each lasting 3 d: before treatment, after treatment, and during treatment with daily injections of ketoprofen. The NRS improved by 0.25 +/- 0.05 with the highest dose of ketoprofen. Although none of the specific gait attributes showed a consistent response to treatment, there was an interaction between dose and experiment for asymmetric steps and reluctance to bear weight; in Exp. 1, but not Exp. 2 and 3, cow steps were more symmetrical (improving by 7.16 +/- 1.02), and cows distributed their weight more evenly (improving by 5.84 +/- 1.13) at the highest doses of ketoprofen. These results indicated that the NRS was more sensitive than the specific gait attributes in assessing differences in gait associated with pain. The results showed that ketoprofen has only a modest effect on gait, indicating either that this drug has little effect on pain due to lameness or that much variation in NRS was due to factors other than pain.

Metritis is a disease of particular concern after calving because of its profound negative effects on the reproductive performance of dairy cows. Cows at risk for metritis have shorter feeding times in the days before calving but prepartum dry matter intake (DMI) and water intake may also be useful in identifying cows at risk for this disease. Feeding, drinking, and intake measures may also be affected by social interactions among group-housed cows. The objective of this study, therefore, was to measure intake, feeding, drinking, and social behavior to determine which measures could identify cows at risk for metritis after calving. Feeding and drinking behavior and intake measures were collected from 101 Holstein dairy cows from 2 wk before until 3 wk after calving using an electronic monitoring system. Social behavior at the feed bunk was assessed from video recordings. Metritis severity was diagnosed based on daily rectal body temperature as well as condition of vaginal discharge that was assessed every 3 d after calving until d +21. In this study, 12% of cows were classified as severely metritic and 27% as mildly metritic. Prepartum feeding time and DMI were best able to identify cows at risk for metritis. Cows that developed severe metritis spent less time feeding and consumed less feed compared with healthy cows beginning 2 wk before the observation of clinical signs of infection. For every 10-min decrease in average daily feeding time during the week before calving, the odds of severe metritis increased by 1.72, and for every 1-kg decrease in DMI during this period, cows were nearly 3 times more likely to be diagnosed with this disorder. During the week before calving, cows that were later diagnosed with severe metritis had lower DMI and feeding times during the hours following fresh feed delivery. During this period these cows also engaged in fewer aggressive interactions at the feed bins compared with cows that remained healthy. This research is the first to show that social behavior may play an important role in transition cow health. Research is now required to determine how management should be changed to reduce or prevent illness in transition dairy cows.

We studied dairy cows (n = 30) walking on concrete and on a soft, high-friction composite rubber surface to examine how flooring influenced gait and how this differed for cows with hoof lesions. Cows had hooves trimmed 9 wk after the trial and were classified as either with or without sole ulcers. Video recordings of the cows while walking were digitized using motion analysis software to calculate stride variables (length, height, overlap, duration, proportion of triple support, and speed). Gait was scored by a subjective scoring system (1 = sound to 5 = severely lame) and by a continuous visual analog scale for each of 7 gait attributes. Cows with sole ulcers walking on a composite rubber surface had longer strides (156.9 +/- 2.6 vs. 149.6 +/- 2.6 cm), higher stride heights (9.7 +/- 0.3 vs. 8.8 +/- 0.3 cm), more stride overlap (0.4 +/- 2.0 vs. -4.3 +/- 2.0 cm), shorter periods of triple support (3 legs in ground contact; 68.6 +/- 2.0 vs. 73.8 +/- 2.0%), walked faster (1.22 +/- 0.04 vs. 1.17 +/- 0.04 m/s) and had lower overall gait scores (2.9 +/- 0.1 vs. 3.1 +/- 0.1), better tracking-up (19 +/- 2 vs. 24 +/- 2), better joint flexion (29 +/- 2 vs. 33 +/- 2), more symmetric steps (31 +/- 3 vs. 36 +/- 3), and less reluctance to bear weight on their legs (12 +/- 2 vs. 16 +/- 2) compared with walking on concrete. Similar results were found for cows without sole ulcers. Most of the subjective gait measures could distinguish between cows with and without sole ulcers, but this was not the case for kinematic measures other than stride height. Cows with higher gait scores (more severe lameness) showed the greatest improvement in stride length (r = -0.51), triple support (r = 0.59), swing duration (r = -0.44), overall gait score (r = 0.46), and reluctance to bear weight (r = 0.66) when walking on the rubber surface compared with cows with lower gait scores. These results indicate that rubber flooring provides a more secure footing and is more comfortable to walk on, especially for lame cattle.

This study tested whether providing cows a 4-wk period on pasture would improve gait and change lying behavior. Eighteen groups, each of 4 lactating Holstein cows initially housed in a freestall barn, were assigned to either continued housing in the same freestall barn, or moved to pasture to provide changes in both physical environment and diet. To assess lameness, gait scores (1 to 5) were recorded weekly for 4 wk. Gait improved by an average of 0.22 units/wk for those cows kept on pasture. We also recorded 4 specific gait attributes (head bob, back arch, tracking up, and reluctance to bear weight evenly on all 4 hooves), and found that the latter 2 attributes also improved during the pasture period. Improved gait for cows on pasture was not because of increased lying times. Cows on pasture actually spent less time lying down than cows kept indoors (10.9 vs. 12.3 h/d), although this lying time was spread over a larger number of bouts (15.3 vs. 12.2 bouts). Cows housed on pasture also lost more weight and produced less milk relative to cows in freestalls, likely because of reduced nutrient intake. These results indicate that a period on pasture can be used to help lame cattle recover probably because pasture provides a more comfortable surface upon which cows stand, helping them to recover from hoof and leg injuries.