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Overexpression of the MDM2 oncogene and mutations in the p53 tumor suppressor commonly occur in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and are associated with increased mortality due to this disease. Inhibiting MDM2 has been demonstrated to be a valid approach for the treatment of HCC. However, most of the MDM2 inhibitors evaluated to date have been designed to block the MDM2 and p53 binding, and have limited efficacy against tumors with mutant or deficient p53. In the present study, we developed a novel MDM2 inhibitor (termed SP141) that has direct effects on MDM2 and exerts anti-HCC activity independent of the p53 status of the cancer cells. We demonstrate that SP141 inhibits cell growth and prevents cell migration and invasion, independent of p53. Mechanistically, SP141 directly binds the MDM2 protein and promotes MDM2 degradation. The inhibition of MDM2 by SP141 also increases the sensitivity of HCC cells to sorafenib. In addition, in orthotopic and patient-derived xenograft models, SP141 inhibits MDM2 expression and suppresses tumor growth and metastasis, without any host toxicity. Furthermore, the inhibition of MDM2 by SP141 is essential for its anti-HCC activities. These results provide support for the further development of SP141 as a lead candidate for the treatment of HCC. Keywords: CRISPR/Cas9, Hepatocellular carcinoma, MDM2, p53-independent, Patient-derived xenograft

Background: Neuroblastoma is an aggressive pediatric solid tumor with an overall survival rate of &lt, 50% for patients with high-risk disease. The majority (&gt, 98%) of pathologically-diagnosed neuroblastomas have wild-type p53 with intact functional activity. However, the mouse double minute 2 (MDM2) homolog, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, is overexpressed in neuroblastoma and leads to inhibition of p53. MDM2 also exerts p53-independent oncogenic functions. Thus, MDM2 seems to be an attractive target for the reactivation of p53 and attenuation of oncogenic activity in neuroblastoma. Methods: In this study, we evaluated the anticancer activities and underlying mechanisms of action of SP141, a first-in-class MDM2 inhibitor, in neuroblastoma cell lines with different p53 backgrounds. The findings were confirmed in mouse xenograft models of neuroblastoma. Results: We demonstrate that SP141 reduces neuroblastoma cell viability, induces apoptosis, arrests cells at the G2/M phase, and prevents cell migration, independent of p53. In addition, in neuroblastoma xenograft models, SP141 inhibited MDM2 expression and suppressed tumor growth without any host toxicity at the effective dose. Conclusions: MDM2 inhibition by SP141 results in the inhibition of neuroblastoma growth and metastasis, regardless of the p53 status of the cells and tumors. These findings provide proof-of-concept that SP141 represents a novel treatment option for both p53 wild-type and p53 null neuroblastoma.

Overexpression of the MDM2 oncogene and mutations in the p53 tumor suppressor commonly occur in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and are associated with increased mortality due to this disease. Inhibiting MDM2 has been demonstrated to be a valid approach for the treatment of HCC. However, most of the MDM2 inhibitors evaluated to date have been designed to block the MDM2 and p53 binding, and have limited efficacy against tumors with mutant or deficient p53. In the present study, we developed a novel MDM2 inhibitor (termed SP141) that has direct effects on MDM2 and exerts anti-HCC activity independent of the p53 status of the cancer cells. We demonstrate that SP141 inhibits cell growth and prevents cell migration and invasion, independent of p53. Mechanistically, SP141 directly binds the MDM2 protein and promotes MDM2 degradation. The inhibition of MDM2 by SP141 also increases the sensitivity of HCC cells to sorafenib. In addition, in orthotopic and patient-derived xenograft models, SP141 inhibits MDM2 expression and suppresses tumor growth and metastasis, without any host toxicity. Furthermore, the inhibition of MDM2 by SP141 is essential for its anti-HCC activities. These results provide support for the further development of SP141 as a lead candidate for the treatment of HCC.

The tumor suppressor p53 is believed to be the mostly studied molecule in modern biomedical research. Although p53 interacts with hundreds of molecules to exert its biological functions, there are only a few modulators regulating its expression and function, with murine double minute 2 (MDM2) playing a key role in this regard. MDM2 also contributes to malignant transformation and cancer development through p53-dependent and -independent mechanisms. There is an increasing interest in developing MDM2 inhibitors for cancer prevention and therapy. We recently demonstrated that the nuclear factor of activated T cells 1 (NFAT1) activates MDM2 expression. NFAT1 regulates several cellular functions in cancer cells, such as cell proliferation, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, and drug resistance. Both NFAT isoforms and MDM2 are activated and overexpressed in several cancer subtypes. In addition, a positive correlation exists between NFAT1 and MDM2 in tumor tissues. Our recent clinical study has demonstrated that high expression levels of NFAT1 and MDM2 are independent predictors of a poor prognosis in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Thus, inhibition of the NFAT1-MDM2 pathway appears to be a novel potential therapeutic strategy for cancer. In this review, we summarize the potential oncogenic roles of MDM2 and NFAT1 in cancer cells and discuss the efforts of discovery and the development of several newly identified MDM2 and NFAT1 inhibitors, focusing on their potent in vitro and in vivo anticancer activities. This review also highlights strategies and future directions, including the need to focus on the development of more specific and effective NFAT1-MDM2 dual inhibitors for cancer therapy.

Variation in DNA repair genes is one of the mechanisms that may lead to variation in DNA repair capacity. Ku, a heterodimeric DNA-binding complex, is directly involved in repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Ku consists of two subunits, Ku70 and Ku80, which are encoded by the XRCC6 and XRCC5 genes, respectively. In the present study, we investigated whether common genetic variant in variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) XRCC5 and T-991C XRCC6 was associated with an altered risk of breast cancer. The present study included 407 females with breast cancer and 395 age frequency-matched controls which were randomly selected from the healthy female blood donors. The XRCC5 and XRCC6 polymorphisms were determined using PCR-based methods. For XRCC5 polymorphism, in comparison with the 1R/1R genotype, the 0R/0R genotype increased breast cancer risk (OR 9.55, 95%CI 1.19-76.64, P = 0.034). The 1R/3R genotype compared with 1R/1R genotype decreased the risk of breast cancer (Fisher's exact test P = 0.015). There was no association between T-991C polymorphism of XRCC6 and breast cancer risk. Mean of age at diagnosis of breast cancer for 0, 1, 2, 3, and >4 repeat in XRCC5 were 39.2, 41.9, 44.3, 45.8, and 47.3 years, respectively. The Kaplan-Meier survival analysis revealed that the number of repeat was associated with age at diagnosis of breast cancer (log rank statistic = 13.90, df = 4, P = 0.008). The findings of the present study revealed that either breast cancer risk or age at diagnosis of breast cancer was associated with the VNTR polymorphism at promoter region of XRCC5.