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Conformational flexibility plays an essential role in antibodies' functional and structural stability. They facilitate and determine the strength of antigen-antibody interactions. Camelidae express an interesting subtype of single-chain antibody, named Heavy Chain only Antibody. They have only one N-terminal Variable domain (V H H) per chain, composed of Frameworks (FRs) and Complementarity Determining regions (CDRs) like their VH and VL counterparts in IgG. Even when expressed independently, V H H domains display excellent solubility and (thermo)stability, which helps them to retain their impressive interaction capabilities. Sequence and structural features of V H H domains contributing to these abilities have already been studied compared to classical antibodies. To have the broadest view and understand the changes in dynamics of these macromolecules, large-scale molecular dynamics simulations for a large number of non-redundant V H H structures have been performed for the first time. This analysis reveals the most prevalent movements in these domains. It reveals the four main classes of V H Hs dynamics. Diverse local changes were observed in CDRs with various intensities. Similarly, different types of constraints were observed in CDRs, while FRs close to CDRs were sometimes primarily impacted. This study sheds light on the changes in flexibility in different regions of V H H that may impact their in silico design.

This paper includes the study of early embryonic death (EED), predisposing factors of EED and treatment. EED refers to the fetal mortality which varies in mare and camelids but most probably not later than 50 days of gestation. This duration may be divided into very early mortality, early mortality and late embryonic mortality. This also varies in mare and camelids. There are different embryonic, maternal, environmental/external, and infectious and noninfectious factors which lead to early embryonic loss. Diagnosis is very difficult as in most of the cases resorption of fetus occurs but it is done by the use of ultrasound. Unfortunately, there is no treatment to avoid early embryonic mortality. However, new reproductive technologies have increased the service rate in a herd, and efforts are still being made to determine the rate and frequency of camel embryonic loss.

Introduction: Clinical symptoms are mostly unspecific in hepatic diseases, thus most clinical examinations are of limited benefit in the diagnosis of hepatic diseases and often only general statements can be made about parenchymal damage or loss of function. In contrast, sonography of the liver can provide information about the type of lesion and thus also about the prognosis for the animal. A systematic assessment of organ size, parenchymal, vascular and bile duct system structures can facilitate to make possible findings. Sonography is also used in further diagnostics such as liver biopsy or chole-cystocentesis. This review describes the basic procedure for the sonographic examination in ruminants and camelids on the basis of selected findings relevant to the clinical veterinarian. In addition, potential and limits of additional diagnostics are discussed.

Bacterial osteomyelitis in veterinary patients can be challenging to diagnose and treat, given limited therapeutic options and reported success rates. Osteomyelitis is frequently associated with surgical implant devices, including those required to optimise stability and healing of fractures. However, management of osteomyelitis sometimes necessitates the removal of these surgical implant devices in order to eradicate infection or limit implant-related osteolysis. The goal of this article is to provide a general and species-specific review of bacterial osteomyelitis in a selection of domestic veterinary species, including cats, dogs, horses, cattle and camelids, with a focus on classification, clinical presentation, aetiologic agents, and common therapeutic interventions reported in the literature. New treatment options emerging from research and human medicine will be also discussed, as they also apply to current or future care of veterinary patients with osteomyelitis., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This paper reviews that state of our knowledge concerning follicular wave dynamics, monitoring and manipulation. All camelids have overlapping follicular waves in absence of ovulation which is induced by a seminal plasma factor (βNGF). The interval between follicular waves varies. The size of the ovulatory follicle varies between 11 and 25 mm in camels and between in 6 and 13 mm in South American Camelids. The interval between induction of ovulation and next ovulatory follicle is 15 ± 1 day for all camelids. Follicular activity is best monitored by transrectal ultrasonography. Progesterone therapy for 7-15 days seems to suppress follicular dominance but does not completely inhibit follicular recruitment. Combination of estradiol and progesterone seems to provide better control of follicular activity. Both methods have provided variable results in the synchronization of follicular waves. Combination of induction of ovulation with GnRH and luteolysis at predetermined times shows some promise in synchronization of follicular dominance. These synchronization protocols require further investigation in order to provide practical approaches for fixed-time breeding. Ovarian superstimulation with FSH and eCG alone or in combination is somewhat successful. The best results are obtained when treatment is initiated at the emergence of a new follicular wave after induction of ovulation or following treatment with progesterone for 7-14 days. However, response remains extremely variable particularly in terms of ovulation rate and number of recovered embryos. Sources of this variability need to be studied including the effects of season, nutrition, doses and frequency of administration of gonadotropin., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

In addition to canonical antibodies composed of heavy and light chains, the adaptive immune systems of camelids and cartilaginous fish comprise heavy-chain only isotypes (HcAb) devoid of light chains, where antigen-binding is mediated exclusively by one variable domain. Due to their inherent favorable attributes, such as high affinity and specificity for their cognate antigen, extraordinary stability, small size and, most importantly, the possibility to complement classical antibodies in terms of 'drugable' target-space, HcAb-derived entities evolved as promising candidates for biomedical applications of which many have already proven to be successful in early stage clinical trials., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Nanobodies are single chain antibodies that have become a highly valuable and versatile tool for biomolecular and therapeutic research. One application field is the stabilization of active states of flexible proteins, among which G-protein coupled receptors represent a very important class of membrane proteins. Here we present the backbone and side-chain assignment of the 1 H, 13 C and 15 N resonances of Nb33 and Nb39, two nanobodies that recognize and stabilize the µ-opioid receptor to opioids in its active agonist-bound conformation. In addition, we present a comparison of their secondary structures as derived from NMR chemical shifts.

Simple Summary: Mitochondrial DNA evolves rapidly, is maternally inherited, and is relatively small and compact in most animal species, making it a popular marker in molecular studies. In genomics, the study of mitochondrial DNA is important for understanding the origins, history, and adaptation of domesticated species. This review examines the D-loop region of mitochondrial DNA in Arabian camels to explore maternal inheritance, genetic diversity, and evolutionary history. It highlights significant genetic differences and adaptive traits in the mitogenome of Arabian camels. The D-loop region contains extensive polymorphisms and haplotypes, which provide insights into camel domestication and breeding processes. Comparative analyses with other camelid species reveal unique genetic signatures in the Arabian camel. Finally, this review integrates recent advancements in mitochondrial genomics, demonstrating potential applications in conservation and breeding programs to enhance the understanding and preservation of Camelidae genetics. The Camelidae family, ranging from southwest Asia to north Africa, South America, and Australia, includes key domesticated species adapted to diverse environments. Among these, the Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius) is vital to the cultural and economic landscape of the Arabian Peninsula. This review explores the mitochondrial DNA of the dromedary camel, focusing on the D-loop region to understand its genetic diversity, maternal inheritance, and evolutionary history. We aim to investigate the unique characteristics of Arabian camel mtDNA, analyze the D-loop for genetic diversity and maternal lineage patterns, and explore the implications of mitochondrial genomic studies for camel domestication and adaptation. Key findings on mtDNA structure and variation highlight significant genetic differences and adaptive traits. The D-loop, essential for mtDNA replication and transcription, reveals extensive polymorphisms and haplotypes, providing insights into dromedary camel domestication and breeding history. Comparative analyses with other camelid species reveal unique genetic signatures in the Arabian camel, reflecting its evolutionary and adaptive pathways. Finally, this review integrates recent advancements in mitochondrial genomics, demonstrating camel genetic diversity and potential applications in conservation and breeding programs. Through comprehensive mitochondrial genome analysis, we aim to enhance the understanding of Camelidae genetics and contribute to the preservation and improvement of these vital animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of zooarchaeological collections from Mérida is still rare, lacking above all information on the Romans diet and animal management. Here we present the description of the fauna found in a dump next to the northern part of the Roman wall, which also includes some contexts of ritual nature, dated to the 1st century AD until the beginning of 5th century AD. The osteological remains of animals have shown that most of them come from food waste and worked bones. We can see that there is a temporal evolution in the use of that space and in the species used, with smaller animals being preferred in the first phase and cattle being more abundant in the 4th century. Some improvement indicators were also identified, as would be expected for a provincial capital, such as Emerita Augusta. Also, ritual burials of numerous dogs as well as a skeleton of the oldest specimen in Iberia of Egyptian mongoose, camel and an edible dormouse, constitute interesting discoveries in this assemblage, demonstrating that this is an exceptional sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The injudicious usage of antibiotics during infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria leads to the emergence of β-lactamases. Among them, the NDM-1 enzyme poses a serious threat to human health. Developing new antibiotics or inhibiting β-lactamases might become essential to reduce and prevent bacterial infections. Nanobodies (Nbs), the smallest antigen-binding single-domain fragments derived from Camelidae heavy-chain-only antibodies, targeting enzymes, are innovative alternatives to develop effective inhibitors. The biopanning of an immune VHH library after phage display has helped to retrieve recombinant antibody fragments with high inhibitory activity against recombinant-NDM-1 enzyme. Nb02NDM-1, Nb12NDM-1, and Nb17NDM-1 behaved as uncompetitive inhibitors against NDM-1 with Ki values in the nM range. Remarkably, IC50 values of 25.0 nM and 8.5 nM were noted for Nb02NDM-1 and Nb17NDM-1, respectively. The promising inhibition of NDM-1 by Nbs highlights their potential application in combating particular Gram-negative infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the published works of camels in Saudi Arabia, this study is the first checklist of parasites infecting the one-humped camel, Camelus dromedarius in Saudi Arabia between 1950-2021. The present checklist was organized taxonomically in which consist of 75 names representing 4 groups of parasites. The first group was Protozoa with 24 names. Secondly, 13 names of nematodes were reported, while there were 12 names of Platyhelminthes. The last group belongs to the Arthropoda which consists of 26 reported species, most of which belong to Ixodida (Arachnida: Acari). Based on the resulting checklist, the geographical sampling of these records focuses mainly on the Central, Western, Eastern, and Southern regions, respectively. To date, a few studies have recorded parasites in the North region. The evidence reviewed in this list seems to suggest that further research should be undertaken to investigate the biodiversity of parasites infecting camels from the northern region of Saudi Arabia, which is connected to other continents of Asia, Africa, and Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) are members of the Camelini tribe within the Camelidae family. They are distributed throughout North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and Southeast Asia. This domestic species is characterized by its superior adaptability to the harsh desert environment. In this study, whole autosomal data of 29 dromedary samples from the Southeast Arabian Peninsula in Oman; 10 from Muscat, 14 from Al-Batinah, and 5 from Al-Sharqiya, were investigated to assess their genetic relationship and to define candidate signatures of positive selection. A minimal genetic distinction that separates Muscat dromedaries from the other two populations was observed, with a degree of genetic admixture between them. Using the de-correlated composite of multiple signals (DCMS) approach, a total of 47 candidate regions within the autosomes of these dromedary populations were defined with signatures of positive selection. These candidate regions harbor a total of 154 genes that are mainly associated with functional categories related to immune response, lipid metabolism and energy expenditure, optical and auditory functions, and long-term memory. Different functional genomic variants were called on the candidate regions and respective genes that warrant further investigation to find possible association with the different favorable phenotypes in dromedaries. The output of this study paves the way for further research efforts aimed at defining markers for use in genomic breeding programs, with the goal of conserving the genetic diversity of the species and enhancing its productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camelids are the only living representatives of the Suborder Tylopoda, and present a unique set of osteo‐myological masticatory features, differing from all other extant euungulates. They combine selenodont dentition and rumination with a fused symphysis, and roughly plesiomorphic muscle proportions. Despite its potential relevance as an euungulate model in comparative anatomy studies, the available data is strikingly scarce. The present study represents the first description of the masticatory muscles of a Lamini, analyzing the functional morphology of Lama glama and other camelids in a comparative framework. Both sides of the head of three adult specimens from Argentinean Puna were dissected. Descriptions, illustrations, muscular maps, and weighing of all masticatory muscles were performed. Some facial muscles are also described. The myology of llamas confirms that camelids possess relatively large temporalis muscles, with Lama being less extreme than Camelus. This plesiomorphic feature is also recorded in suines and some basal euungulates. Conversely, the direction of the fibers of the M. temporalis is mainly horizontal, resembling grinding euungulates such as equids, pecorans, and some derived suines. Although the M. masseter of camelids and equids do not reach the particularly modified configuration of pecorans, in which it is rostrally extended and arranged horizontally, the posterior sectors of Mm. masseter superficialis and pterygoideus medialis have acquired relatively horizontal disposition in the former lineages, suitable for protraction. The pterygoidei complex presents several bundles, and its relative size is intermediate between suines and derived grinding euungulates. The whole masticatory muscles are relatively light when compared to jaw weight. The evolution of the masticatory muscles and chewing of camelids implied that grinding abilities were reached with less extreme modifications of the topography and/or proportions than pecoran ruminants and equids. A relatively large M. temporalis recruited as a powerful retractor during the power stroke is a key feature of camelids. The relaxed pressure on chewing derived from the acquisition of rumination explains the slenderer build masticatory musculature of camelids compared to other euungulates except ruminants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanobodies (nAbs) are recombinant antigen-binding variable domain fragments obtained from heavy-chain-only immunoglobulins. Among mammals, these are unique to camelids (camels, llamas, alpacas, etc.). Nanobodies are of great use in biomedical research due to their efficient folding and stability under a variety of conditions, as well as their small size. The latter characteristic is particularly important for nAbs used as immunolabeling reagents, since this can improve penetration of cell and tissue samples compared to conventional antibodies, and also reduce the gap distance between signal and target, thereby improving imaging resolution. In addition, their recombinant nature allows for unambiguous definition and permanent archiving in the form of DNA sequence, enhanced distribution in the form of sequences or plasmids, and easy and inexpensive production using well-established bacterial expression systems, such as the IPTG induction method described here. This article will review the basic workflow and process for developing, screening, and validating novel nAbs against neuronal target proteins. The protocols described make use of the most common nAb development method, wherein an immune repertoire from an immunized llama is screened via phage display technology. Selected nAbs can then be taken through validation assays for use as immunolabels or as intrabodies in neurons. © 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Total RNA isolation from camelid leukocytes Basic Protocol 2: First-strand cDNA synthesis; VH H and VH repertoire PCR Basic Protocol 3: Preparation of the phage display library Basic Protocol 4: Panning of the phage display library Basic Protocol 5: Small-scale nAb expression Basic Protocol 6: Sequence analysis of selected nAb clones Basic Protocol 7: Nanobody validation as immunolabels Basic Protocol 8: Generation of nAb-pEGFP mammalian expression constructs Basic Protocol 9: Nanobody validation as intrabodies Support Protocol 1: ELISA for llama serum testing, phage titer, and screening of selected clones Support Protocol 2: Amplification of helper phage stock Support Protocol 3: nAb expression in amber suppressor E. coli bacterial strains.

Abstract Background Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is commonly analyzed in South American camelids with suspected neurologic disease because of ease of collection and characteristic findings associated with certain diseases. Objectives To assess CSF findings associated with short‐term survival or non‐survival in South American camelids in which neurologic disease was a differential diagnosis based on history and physical examination. Animals Twenty‐one llamas and 33 alpacas that underwent CSF analysis at the University of Missouri Veterinary Health Center. Methods Retrospective study. Medical records of camelids that underwent CSF analysis between January 2005 and September 2021 were studied. Short‐term survival was defined as survival to discharge from the Veterinary Health Center. A Fisher's exact test was used to compare species, CSF results, and survival. Results Odds of survival were 3.9 times higher in camelids with a total nucleated cell count (TNCC)

Nanobodies, also referred to as single domain-based VHHs, are antibody fragments derived from heavy-chain only IgG antibodies found in the Camelidae family. Due to their small size, simple structure, high antigen binding affinity, and remarkable stability in extreme conditions, nanobodies possess the potential to overcome several of the limitations of conventional monoclonal antibodies. For many years, nanobodies have been of great interest in a wide variety of research fields, particularly in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. This culminated in the approval of the world's first nanobody based drug (Caplacizumab) in 2018 with others following soon thereafter. This review will provide an overview, with examples, of (i) the structure and advantages of nanobodies compared to conventional monoclonal antibodies, (ii) methods used to generate and produce antigen-specific nanobodies, (iii) applications for diagnostics, and (iv) ongoing clinical trials for nanobody therapeutics as well as promising candidates for clinical development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Species-wise mitochondrial DNA distinction among Camelidae family species has been observed. • No geographical-wise nor population-wise genetic distinction can be defined among dromedary camels. • Gene-wide adaptive divergence can be detected between the Old World and New World camels. • Overall gene-wide purifying selection has been defined in Old world camels. • Several codons have been found to be under positive selection in dromedary camels. The two species of the Old World Camelini tribe, dromedary and Bactrian camels, show superior adaptability to the different environmental conditions they populate, e.g. desert, mountains and coastal areas, which might be associated with adaptive variations on their mitochondrial DNA. Here, we investigate signatures of natural selection in the 13-mitochondrial protein-coding genes of different dromedary camel populations from the Arabian Peninsula, Africa and southwest Asia. The full mitogenome sequences of 42 dromedaries, 38 domestic Bactrian, 29 wild Bactrian camels and 31 samples representing the New World Lamini tribe reveal species-wise genetic distinction among Camelidae family species, with no evidence of geographic distinction among dromedary camels. We observe gene-wide signals of adaptive divergence between the Old World and New World camels, with evidence of purifying selection among Old World camel species. Upon comparing the different Camelidae tribes, 27 amino acid substitutions across ten mtDNA protein-coding genes were found to be under positive selection, in which, 24 codons were defined to be under positive adaptive divergence between Old World and New World camels. Seven codons belonging to three genes demonstrated positive selection in dromedary lineage. A total of 89 codons were found to be under positive selection in Camelidae family based on investigating the impact of amino acid replacement on the physiochemical properties of proteins, including equilibrium constant and surrounding hydrophobicity. These mtDNA variants under positive selection in the Camelidae family might be associated with their adaptation to their contrasting environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The camel is an important mammal, especially in the Middle EAST, although it has received less attention than other mammals and ruminants. Due to the lack of studies in this field, the current research was designed to investigate the morphological, histological, and immunohistochemical of one-humped camel's stomach. In this study, the third chamber (abomasum) of the stomach in adult one-humped camels (Camelus dromedaries) were evaluated (n=12). The morphological study of the third chamber showed that it consisted of two parts, the letter J, where the front part was found to be tubular, the outer surface is smooth, swollen, and transparent, while the inner surface has longitudinal folds with a low height. The posterior part is spherical, and the inner surface is divided into two regions. Histological study showed that the abomasum consists of four layers and is lined with simple columnar epithelium. The lamina property is composed of loose connective tissue. It contains different glands that, according to their location from the abomasum, where cardiac, Fundus, and pyloric glands are found, as well as stomach cells such as neck cells, mucous cells, chief cells, and parietal cells. In contrast, the sub mucosa layer is composed of loose connective tissue. It was also observed that the muscular layer is developed and contained from two layers, a circular inner and the outer one is longitudinal. It was also noted that the fourth layer is composed of loose connective tissue. The histochemical study showed a positive response to the PAS reagent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The known chigger fauna of Argentina comprises 17 species organized in the families Trombiculidae (10) and Leeuwenhoekiidae (7). The present study describes a new species of Eutrombicula with drawings, phase contrast microscopy images, and SEM images. This chigger was collected parasitizing a vicuna in Abra Pampa City, Jujuy Province. It is the first time a chigger from Argentina has been collected from the family Camelidae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The llama (Lama glama) and the alpaca (L. pacos) form the group known as domesticated camelids. They belong to the family Camelidae of the order Artiodactyla (ungulates). They are separated from other ruminants in the infraorder Tylopoda (footed) because they differ in gastric morphology (three compartments), with the absence of antlers or horns, and replacement of hooves with callous pads ending in claws (Novoa and Wheeler, 1984). Camellias are tall, robust and the largest of the four camelid species. They are used to transport goods in Central and South America, where their meat is also used. The leather is used for shoes, sandals and bags. Their wool fiber is long and coarse, varying in color from white to black, and is used to make various clothing items. In our country, and in Europe in general, llamas and alpacas are used for leisure purposes and even as pets, in some cases their wool being used to create clothing products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: In this study, for the first time, we performed a detailed histological analysis of the cornea and palisades of Vogt in the different wild ruminant species. The material for the research was taken from 49 adult wild ruminants (Bovidae, Camelidae, Cervidae, Giraffidae and Tragulidae) constituting 13 species coming from the Wroclaw Zoological Garden (Poland), the Warsaw Zoological Garden (Poland) and own collection of the Division of Animal Anatomy (Wroclaw). Our results showed that the number of layers of the cornea, i.e., five layers (anterior corneal epithelium, anterior limiting membrane (Bowman's layer), the proper substance of the cornea, the posterior limiting membrane (Descemet's membrane) and posterior corneal epithelium) or four layers (no Bowman's layer) is not constant within even the same genus that includes the given species of the tested animal. The results of this study can form the basis for further research on the immunohistochemistry of the cornea in the maintenance of structural integrity and fluid balance in wild ruminants that can be used in veterinary ophthalmology diagnostics. In the study, we data concerning the histological and morphometrical examination of the cornea and palisades of Vogt in the different species of ruminants from the families Bovidae, Camelidae, Cervidae, Giraffidae and Tragulidae, coming from the Warsaw Zoological Garden, the Wroclaw Zoological Garden and the Division of Animal Anatomy. The following ruminant species were investigated: common wildebeest, Kirk's dik-dik, Natal red duiker, scimitar oryx, sitatunga, Philippine spotted deer, Père David's deer, moose, reindeer, reticulated giraffe, okapi, Balabac mouse-deer and alpaca. The cornea of ruminant species such as the common wildebeest, Kirk's dik-dik, Natal red duiker, scimitar oryx, reindeer and Balabac mouse-deer consisted of four layers (not found in the Bowman's layer): the anterior corneal epithelium, the proper substance of the cornea, the posterior limiting membrane (Descemet's membrane) and the posterior corneal epithelium (endothelium). The anterior corneal epithelium was composed of a multilayer keratinizing squamous epithelium, which was characterized in the studied ruminants with a variable number of cell layers but also with a different thickness both in the central epithelium part and in the peripheral part. Moreover, the proper substance of cornea was thinnest in Balabac mouse-deer, Kirk's dik-dik, Natal red duiker, scimitar oryx, Philippine spotted deer, alpaca, reindeer and sitatunga and was thickest in the reticulated giraffe. The thickest Descemet's membrane was observed in the Père David's deer. The corneal limbus is characterized by a large number of pigment cell clusters in Kirk's dik-dik, scimitar oryx, moose, Balabac mouse-deer and alpaca. In the common wildebeest, Père David's deer, moose, reticulated giraffe, okapi and alpaca, the palisades of Vogt were marked in the form of a crypt-like structure. The corneal limbus epithelium in the examined ruminants was characterized by a variable number of cell layers but also a variable number of melanocytes located in different layers of this epithelium. The detailed knowledge of the corneal structure of domestic and wild animals can contribute to the even better development of methods for treating eye diseases in veterinary medicine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is commonly analyzed in South American camelids with suspected neurologic disease because of ease of collection and characteristic findings associated with certain diseases. Objectives: To assess CSF findings associated with short‐term survival or non‐survival in South American camelids in which neurologic disease was a differential diagnosis based on history and physical examination. Animals: Twenty‐one llamas and 33 alpacas that underwent CSF analysis at the University of Missouri Veterinary Health Center. Methods: Retrospective study. Medical records of camelids that underwent CSF analysis between January 2005 and September 2021 were studied. Short‐term survival was defined as survival to discharge from the Veterinary Health Center. A Fisher's exact test was used to compare species, CSF results, and survival. Results: Odds of survival were 3.9 times higher in camelids with a total nucleated cell count (TNCC) <3 cells/μL (P =.04). No significant association was found between survival and total protein concentration (TPC; P =.15) or percentage of eosinophils (P = 1.0). No significant correlation was found between species and increased TNCC (P =.63), TPC (P =.55), or percentage of eosinophils (P =.30). Among camelids diagnosed with Paralephostrongylus tenuis infestation, odds of survival were 4.95 times higher in alpacas (P =.05). Conclusions: Cerebrospinal fluid TNCC ≥3 cells/μL is associated with decreased odds of short‐term survival in South American camelids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camelids have been known in South America since the late Pliocene, where they arrived from North America as part of the Great American Biotic Interchange (GABI). They became extinct in North America by the late Pleistocene, while surviving in the Southern Cone of South America and in high altitudes of the Andean region. Extinct South American camelids are generally included in the genera Palaeolama and Hemiauchenia, members of which are larger than modern species. We describe here a new, small species of the genus Hemiauchenia based on late Pleistocene specimens previously assigned to Lama guanicoe. This specimen lived in northeastern Brazil at 22 345–21 907 cal a bp, and had a diet composed mainly of C3 plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sarcoptic mange is considered an emerging disease‐causing countless epizootics and significantly affecting wild mammals worldwide. The vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) is a medium‐sized South American wild camelid inhabiting Andean ecosystems, where several populations are live‐sheared by Andean peasant communities as a way of providing an economic income to the people while promoting vicuña conservation. Institutions and scientists have shown concern for the impact and extent of sarcoptic mange in several vicuña populations across their range, as well as the lack of consistent knowledge about this disease in the species. Here, we perform a review about sarcoptic mange distribution throughout the vicuña's native range, evidence of effects of age and sex, the modes of transmission and the veterinary treatments employed. The review retrieved a few scientific papers, but found several reports and academic studies mostly considered as 'grey literature'. Mange was recorded across the entire native vicuña range (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Peru). Mange prevalence varied across vicuña studies (up to 60% prevalence in some populations) and severely affected a number of populations, being an important source of mortality. Mange was reported as more frequent in adults than in offspring. The modes of mange transmission remain unclear, although direct transmission between infected and healthy animals seems to be the most likely, including the transmission between domestic camelids and vicuñas. Regarding the treatments employed, ivermectin was the most frequently used. We further identified several gaps in knowledge and point to future research lines, which seek to promote both species conservation and the maintenance of live‐shearing vicuñas under sustainable approaches in low‐income Andean peasant communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camels are semi-ruminant placental mammals, classified as two-toed, padded-footed mammals, and belong to the family Camelidae, which includes the one-humped camels (Camelus dromedaries), and the two-humped camels (Camelus bactrianus), llama, Alpaca, Vicuna, and Guanaco. The study used 50 Iraqi single-humped camel females who belonged to private fields in the AL-Furat AL-Awsat region, which involved three Iraqi cities (Babylon, Diwaniyah, and Muthanna). All the Biotechnological and Molecular Genetics analyses were performed in the Altakadum Laboratory, Baghdad, in order to determine the genotypes and their distribution ratios for the POU1F1 gene and the relationship of the Polymorphism of the gene with some productive traits, growth characteristics (weight and body dimensions) and blood biochemical parameters of animals. The mutation 225131 was in the second exon region, in which there was a change in the amino acid C.49 CAA>CAC Gln>His. Three genotypes were discovered in this mutation in the second studied piece, which included the region of the first intron and the second exon, with a length of 777 base pairs using DNA sequencing technology. The results indicated that there were highly significant differences (P=0.01) in the distribution ratios of the genotypes resulting from the mutation. The results also showed a significant relationship between these genotypes with somebody dimensions, as there was a significant superiority (P=0.05) for individuals with mutant CC genotype over the wild AA and hetero AC genotypes in each of the traits, body height from the front (220.66±1.76, 215.12±0.92, 212.80 ±2.33) cm and body length (186.66±1.20, 179.47±1.10, 170.00±4.96) cm and head length (55.00±2.08, 50.78±0.46, 51.20 ±1.31) cm for the mutant, wild and hetero, genotypes respectively. Concerning the characteristics of the length of the milking season, daily and total milk production, and its chemical components, there was no significant relationship between the genotypes resulting from the studied mutation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South American camelids (Lamini tribe) are represented by two genera and four species. Here we studied the skull anatomy of three of them, Lama glama , Lama guanicoe and Vicugna vicugna. The coexistence of these species in wide sectors of their distribution and the osteological homogeneity of these camelids constitute important factors that limit or even preclude identification at species level. This is particularly true in paleontological and archaeological contexts in which bones are the only elements to analyze, and complete or fragmentary remains are potentially recorded. Although some contributions dealing with interspecific differentiation of camelids are available currently, the clear distinction between these species through osteological remains is still a pending issue. The aim of this study was to find osteological characters that facilitate the determination of the analyzed species. For this, we analyzed a final sample comprised mainly adult specimens of 11 guanacos, 9 llamas and 18 vicuñas. We described and compared a diverse set of qualitative and quantitative osteological features of the skull, including foramina, processes, muscular scars, and other features of the cranium and mandible. The set of qualitative features included eight observations on the cranium and four on the mandible. The set of quantitative features included eight linear variables on the cranium and two on the mandible. We performed a Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) based on both qualitative and quantitative variables in order to differentiate camelids species. The best results were obtained when both types of variables were included in the analysis. The most robust characters for interspecific discrimination are those related to the muzzle, the mastoid foramen, the paraoccipital process, the lower incisors and the coronoid and condylar processes of the mandible. The morpho-functional meanings of some of these traits are discussed. This study can be considered as a contribution to future systematic studies and as a basic tool to carry out specific assignment of camelids through complete or partial remains in archaeological and paleontological contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antibody treatment is currently the only available countermeasure for botulism, a fatal illness caused by flaccid paralysis of muscles due to botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) intoxication. Among the seven major serotypes of BoNT/A-G, BoNT/A poses the most serious threat to humans because of its high potency and long duration of action. Prior to entering neurons and blocking neurotransmitter release, BoNT/A recognizes motoneurons via a dual-receptor binding process in which it engages both the neuron surface polysialoganglioside (PSG) and synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2 (SV2). Previously, we identified a potent neutralizing antitoxin against BoNT/A1 termed ciA-C2, derived from a camelid heavy-chain-only antibody (VHH). In this study, we demonstrate that ciA-C2 prevents BoNT/A1 intoxication by inhibiting its binding to neuronal receptor SV2. Furthermore, we determined the crystal structure of ciA-C2 in complex with the receptor-binding domain of BoNT/A1 (HCA1) at 1.68 Å resolution. The structure revealed that ciA-C2 partially occupies the SV2-binding site on HCA1, causing direct interference of HCA1 interaction with both the N-glycan and peptide-moiety of SV2. Interestingly, this neutralization mechanism is similar to that of a monoclonal antibody in clinical trials, despite that ciA-C2 is more than 10-times smaller. Taken together, these results enlighten our understanding of BoNT/A1 interactions with its neuronal receptor, and further demonstrate that inhibiting toxin binding to the host receptor is an efficient countermeasure strategy.

South American Camelids (SACs) make several material and non-material contributions to people and are a key component of the Andean biocultural heritage. From the perspective of the IPBES' Conceptual Framework, SACs constitute the "nature" component in the complex system of interactions between human societies and the Andean mountain environment. There are four SAC living species today, two of which are wild, or Salqa, in the indigenous cosmovision: guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and vicuña (Vicugna vicugna). Llama (Lama glama) and alpaca (Vicugna pacos) were domesticated 5000 years ago, and are therefore Uywa, in the indigenous cosmovision. Both wild and domestic camelids were, and in several cases still are, the most highly appreciated resource for Andean livelihoods. Historically, camelids and their contributions have been used by Andean people since the peopling of the Americas over 11,000 years ago. In this paper, we present three case studies (chakus for vicuña management, llama caravans, and llama nanobodies) to bring attention to the essential role of vicuñas and llamas for Andean communities today, their intercultural linkages with the Western world, and telecoupling interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To understand which morphological/anatomical parts may be responsible in artiodactyl ungulates for the clicking sound made when moving, this research focuses on the forelimb tendon apparatus where an undescribed opening in the fibrous cuff (manica flexoria), called hereafter for its shape as an "oval window" in the manica flexoria (OWMF), was detected. This oval window was found in 24 of the 25 species of four families (Camelidae, Giraffidae, Cervidae, and Bovidae) evaluated; the exception being in Bos taurus taurus (Domestic cattle). The length and width of the OWMF enabled correct species discrimination between the majority of species, but remained conservative intraspecifically, as it did not differ between the left and right side of the forelimb, third and fourth digits, or between sexes. When evaluating the shape of OWMF in individual species, and measuring its length and width, 18 out of the 24 species investigated had this window as an oval shape, the remaining 25% of species exhibited more oval-oblong shapes with either proximal or distal asymmetry. The function of the OWMF in the thoracic autopodium of most ruminant even-toed ungulates is not yet fully understood. Its most likely function is to help balance the pressure inside the ligament cuff and reduce the friction of the touching surfaces of the muscle tendons—thus facilitating the movement of the digits when walking. None of the absolute or relative OWMF parameters fit exclusively with the occurrence and distribution of knee-clicks produced by some bovids and cervids during movement, so the mechanism responsible for this sound remains cryptic from the present anatomical perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The key objective of this study was to formulate a local combined inactivated gel adjuvanted vaccine containing bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV)-1, BVDV-2 viruses and Clostridium perfringens type A toxoid. The study evaluated its ability to enhance protective active immune response in camels' calves against these infectious pathogens under field conditions. Materials and Methods: The local BVDV cytopathic strains and a local strain of toxigenic C. perfringens type A were used in vaccines formulation. Vaccines A and B were monovalent vaccines against C. perfringens and both strains of BVDVs, respectively. While the vaccine C was the combined vaccine used against the three agents. All vaccines were adjuvanted with Montanide gel. Sterility, safety, and potency tests were applied on the formulated vaccines. Virus neutralization and toxin anti-toxin neutralization tests were used to evaluate the immune responses. Results: Both monovalent (vaccine A) and combined vaccines (vaccine C) showed a protective level (4.5 and 3 IU/mL, respectively) against C. perfringens from the 2nd-week post-vaccination. The titer declined to 3 and 2 IU/mL, respectively at the 5th-month post-vaccination. The titer against BVDV, the monovalent vaccine (vaccine B) reached the beak (1.95 IU/mL) at the 1st-month post-vaccination and lasted till 6th-month post-vaccination (0.92 and 0.94 IU/mL) for BVDV-1a and BVDV-2, respectively. Conclusion: Vaccination of camels with the combined vaccine adjuvanted by Montanide gel containing C. perfringens type A toxoid and BVDV strains with 6-month intervals is recommended to protect camels safely and efficiently against such infections in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we used a previously developed osteometry‐based method to calculate available range of motion in presacral intervertebral joints in artiodactyls. We have quantified all three directions of intervertebral mobility: sagittal bending (SB), lateral bending (LB), and axial rotation (AR). This research covers 10 extant families of artiodactyls from 33 genera and 39 species. The cervical region in artiodactyls is the most mobile region of the presacral vertebral column in SB and LB. Mobility is unevenly distributed throughout the joints of the neck. The posterior neck joints (C4–C7) are significantly more mobile (on average by 2.5–3.5°) to anterior joints (C2–C4) and to the neck–thorax joint (C7–T1) in SB and LB. An increase in the relative length of the cervical region in artiodactyls is accompanied by an increase in the bending amplitudes (SB: Pearson r = 0.781; LB: r = 0.884). Animals with the most mobile necks (representative of Giraffidae and Camelidae) are 2–3 times more mobile in SB and LB compared to species with the least mobile necks. The thoracic region in artiodactyls, as in other mammals, is characterized by the greatest amplitudes of AR due to the tangential orientation of the zygapophyseal articular facets. The lowest AR values in the thoracic region are typical for the heaviest artiodactyls—Hippopotamidae. The highest AR values are typical for such agile runners as cervids, musk deer, pronghorn, as well as large and small antelopes. SB mobility in the posterior part of the thoracic region can be used by artiodactyls during galloping. The highest values of SB aROM in the posterior part of the thoracic region are typical for small animals with high SB mobility in the lumbar region. The lumbar region in mammals is adapted for efficient SB. Both the cumulative and average SB values in the lumbar region showed correspondence to the running type employed by an artiodactyl. The greatest SB amplitudes in the lumbar region are typical for small animals, which use saltatorial and saltatorial–cursorial running. An increase in body size also corresponds to a decrease in lumbar SB amplitudes. The lowest SB amplitudes are typical for species using the so‐called mediportal running. Adaptation to endurance galloping in open landscapes is accompanied by a decrease in lumbar SB amplitudes in artiodactyls. The consistency of the approach used and the wide coverage of the studied species make it possible to significantly expand and generalize the knowledge of the biomechanics of the vertebral column in artiodactyls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new compilation of the Old World fossil record of Camelidae and a recent phylogenetic analysis allow a new assessment of the timing of the clade’s diversification. Using a recent implementation of the fossilized birth-death process, we show that the divergence between Bactrian camel and dromedary has a peak probability density around 1 Ma and probably occurred less than 2 million years ago. These dates are much younger than molecular estimates, which place the divergence between the dromedary and the Bactrian camel between 4 and 8 million years ago. Calibration problems in molecular dating seem to explain much of this difference.