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The bioenergetic status of cells is tightly regulated by the activity of cytosolic enzymes and mitochondrial ATP production. To adapt their metabolism to cellular energy needs, mitochondria have been shown to exhibit changes in their ionic composition as the result of changes in cytosolic ion concentrations. Individual mitochondria also exhibit spontaneous changes in their electrical potential without altering those of neighboring mitochondria. We recently reported that individual mitochondria of intact astrocytes exhibit spontaneous transient increases in their Na(+) concentration. Here, we investigated whether the concentration of other ionic species were involved during mitochondrial transients. By combining fluorescence imaging methods, we performed a multiparameter study of spontaneous mitochondrial transients in intact resting astrocytes. We show that mitochondria exhibit coincident changes in their Na(+) concentration, electrical potential, matrix pH and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production during a mitochondrial transient without involving detectable changes in their Ca(2+) concentration. Using widefield and total internal reflection fluorescence imaging, we found evidence for localized transient decreases in the free Mg(2+) concentration accompanying mitochondrial Na(+) spikes that could indicate an associated local and transient enrichment in the ATP concentration. Therefore, we propose a sequential model for mitochondrial transients involving a localized ATP microdomain that triggers a Na(+)-mediated mitochondrial depolarization, transiently enhancing the activity of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. Our work provides a model describing ionic changes that could support a bidirectional cytosol-to-mitochondria ionic communication.

The release of neurotransmitter from presynaptic terminals depends on an increase in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i). In addition to the opening of presynaptic Ca2+ channels during excitation, other Ca2+ transport systems may be involved in changes in [Ca2+]i. We have studied the regulation of [Ca2+]i in nerve terminals of hippocampal cells in culture by the Na(+)-Ca2+ exchanger and by mitochondria. In addition, we have measured changes in the frequency of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSC) before and after the inhibition of the exchanger and of mitochondrial metabolism. We found rather heterogeneous [Ca2+]i responses of individual presynaptic terminals after inhibition of Na(+)-Ca2+ exchange. The increase in [Ca2+]i became more uniform and much larger after additional treatment of the cells with mitochondrial inhibitors. Correspondingly, sEPSC frequencies changed very little when only Na(+)-Ca2+ exchange was inhibited, but increased dramatically after additional inhibition of mitochondria. Our results provide evidence for prominent roles of Na(+)-Ca2+ exchange and mitochondria in presynaptic Ca2+ regulation and spontaneous glutamate release.

Rat hepatocytes respond to alpha-adrenergic stimulation by intracellular production of myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) which stimulates the periodic release and reuptake of intracellular store (IS) Ca2+. The generation of these Ca2+ oscillations was investigated by simultaneously monitoring Ca2+ changes in the cytosol and IS by combined fluorescence microscopy and whole-cell patch clamp. Intracellular IP3 perfusion (1-50 microM in the pipette) produced three types of Ca2+ response: understimulation, oscillations and overstimulation, i.e. with Ca2+ levels not returning to baseline. In a total of 57 experiments, only three displayed oscillations during continuous IP3 infusion, in a narrow range of IP3 concentration centred around 5-8 microM in the pipette. In oscillating cells, cytosolic Ca2+ spikes were synchronized with transient Ca2+ depletions of the IS, consistent with a direct exchange of Ca2+ between the two compartments. Application of 8-Br-cAMP to cells infused with IP3 increased the probability of eliciting Ca2+ oscillations by a factor of 4-5 for IP3 concentrations in the range 1-10 microM, whereas IP3 concentrations above 10 microM always resulted in overstimulation. IP3 photorelease experiments and measurements of IS Ca2+ content indicated that 8-Br-cAMP enhanced the affinity of the IP3 receptor and increased the pool of releasable Ca2+. We propose that cAMP has a permissive role in the generation of IP3-induced Ca2+ oscillations by extending the window of IP3 concentrations able to elicit oscillations.

The possible participation of calmodulin in the activation of store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOC) in single rat hepatocytes was investigated microspectrofluorimetrically. SOC was triggered after discharging intracellular Ca2+ stores using the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin in the absence of external Ca2+. Re-admission of bath Ca2+ caused a rapid and pronounced Ca2+ entry. The calmodulin antagonists calmidazolium or CGS 9343B applied before the thapsigargin treatment inhibited SOC, whereas they were ineffective when added after the thapsigargin-induced Ca2+ transient. This study suggests that activation of calmodulin after the elevation of cytosolic Ca2+ associated with the emptying of Ca2+ stores is involved in the triggering of SOC in hepatocytes.

Agonist-induced Ca2+ oscillations in rat hepatocytes involve the production of myo-inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3), which stimulates the release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores. The oscillatory frequency is conditioned by the agonist concentration. This study investigated the role of IP3 concentration in the modulation of oscillatory frequency by using microinjected photolabile IP3 analogs. Photorelease of IP3 during hormone-induced oscillations evoked a Ca2+ spike, after which oscillations resumed with a delay corresponding to the period set by the agonists. IP3 photorelease had no influence on the frequency of oscillations. After photorelease of 1-(alpha-glycerophosphoryl)-D-myo-inositol-4,5-diphosphate (GPIP2), a slowly metabolized IP3 analog, the frequency of oscillations initially increased by 34% and declined to its original level within approximately 6 min. Both IP3 and GPIP2 effects can be explained by their rate of degradation: the half-life of IP3, which is a few seconds, can account for the lack of influence of IP3 photorelease on the frequency, whereas the slower metabolism of GPIP2 allowed a transient acceleration of the oscillations. The phase shift introduced by IP3 is likely the result of the brief elevation of Ca2+ during spiking that resets the IP3 receptor to a state of maximum inactivation. A mathematical model of Ca2+ oscillations is in satisfactory agreement with the observed results.

A variety of agonists stimulate in hepatocytes a response that takes the shape of repetitive cytosolic free Ca2+ transients called Ca2+ oscillations. The shape of spikes and the pattern of oscillations in a given cell differ depending on the agonist of the phosphoinositide pathway that is applied. In this study, the response of individual rat hepatocytes to maximal stimulation by arginine vasopressin (AVP), phenylephrine and ADP was investigated by fluorescence microscopy and flash photolysis. Hepatocytes loaded with Ca2+-sensitive probes were stimulated with a first agonist to evoke a maximal response, and then a second agonist was added. When phenylephrine or ADP was used as the first agonist, AVP applied subsequently could elicit an additional response, which did not happen when AVP was first applied and phenylephrine or ADP was applied later. Cells microinjected with caged myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) were challenged with the different agonists and, when a maximal response was obtained, photorelease of IP3 was triggered. Cells maximally stimulated with AVP did not respond to IP3 photorelease, whereas those stimulated with phenylephrine or ADP responded with a fast Ca2+ spike above the elevated steady-state level, which was followed by an undershoot. In contrast, with all three agonists, IP3 photorelease triggered at the top of an oscillatory Ca2+ transient was able to mobilize additional Ca2+. These experiments indicate that the differential response of cells to agonists is found not only during Ca2+ oscillations but also during maximal agonist stimulation and that potency and efficacy differences exist among agonists.

Single isolated rat hepatocytes were used to investigate the influence of intracellular pH (pHi) on hormone-induced cytosolic Ca2+ oscillations, using videofluorescence microscopy. Although pHi did not vary after alpha-adrenergic stimulation, manipulations of pHi induced pronounced alterations in the frequency of oscillations. Increasing the resting pHi with ammonium chloride (5-20 mM), trimethylammonium (2-10 mM), or triethylammonium (1.2-8 mM) reduced the frequency of oscillations. A change in pHi of > 0.25 was sufficient to reversibly inhibit oscillations. This effect could be overcome by increasing the agonist concentration or by adding 8-bromoadenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate, an agent known to potentiate the alpha-adrenergic response. Cellular acidification, obtained by the ammonium prepulse method as well as by application of acetate or the ionophore nigericin, in the continuous presence of agonist was accompanied by a modest frequency increase of the oscillations, leading in some cases to an overstimulated state. This study indicates that pHi, within a range of values expected to occur in vivo (0.1-0.2 pH units), exerts a chronotropic effect on phenylephrine-induced Ca2+ oscillations. In contrast, oscillations induced by ADP or vasopressin were pHi invariant.

Simultaneous Ca2+ measurements in the cytosol and intracellular stores (IS) of rat hepatocytes were performed using two Ca(2+)-sensitive probes (Fluo-3 and Mag-fura-2), and combined whole-cell patch clamp and fluorescence microscopy. A steady-state Ca2+ concentration of approximately 630 microM was estimated in the IS. alpha 1-Adrenergic stimulation induced periodic elevations of cytosolic Ca2+ and parallel synchronized transient declines in the IS. Subsequent application of the intracellular Ca(2+)-pump inhibitor thapsigargin resulted in a release of Ca2+ from the IS to reach a level of Ca2+ depletion much lower than the lowest transient decline observed during the oscillations.