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In the Visible Korean, serially sectioned images with real color and high resolution have been prepared from four cadaveric subjects: male whole body, female whole body, male head, and female pelvis. Recently, segmented images of the female whole body were manufactured, permitting the distribution of the complete four data sets. The purpose of this report was to promote the applications of sectioned and segmented images from the Visible Korean by announcing them. Reduced image data were loaded to self-developed browsing software; using the browsing software, the contents could be quickly grasped and evaluated by other investigators. The four data sets were compared to disclose the individual merits and demerits. The sectioned and segmented images showed the possibility to be used to reconstruct the stereoscopic volume and surface models of body structures. The Visible Korean is expected to contribute to the interactive simulation of medical learning and clinical practice.

Objective To provide an anatomical atlas made of serially sectioned images of a female cadaver that clearly demonstrated the pudendal nerve. Materials and Methods The courses of the pudendal nerve, internal pudendal artery, and internal pudendal vein were observed on the sectioned images of a female cadaver. The spatial relationship between the nerve and blood vessels was interpreted. Results Traces of the structures on the sectioned images showed that the sources of the sciatic and pudendal nerves were the fourth lumbar nerve to the second sacral nerve and the second to the fourth sacral nerves, respectively. As the borderline, the second sacral nerve showed a remarkable variation. The pudendal nerve gave off the internal rectal nerve proximal to the pudendal canal and it gave off the muscular branch to the urogenital triangle in the pudendal canal. It was divided into the posterior labial nerve and the dorsal nerve of clitoris distal to the pudendal canal. Inside the pudendal canal, the internal pudendal vein, internal pudendal artery, and pudendal nerve were arranged from superomedial to inferolateral order. In other words, the pudendal nerve was the farthest from the uterus. Conclusion The sorted sectioned images with labels, accompanied by the schematic drawings, could serve as references for interpreting clinical images and conducting procedures related to pudendal nerve conditions.

Background: In physical anthropology, bone landmarks are palpated in living humans for the identification of corresponding skin landmarks and exact biometry. The purpose of this study is to help comprehend the locations and depths of representative bone landmarks all over the body. Materials and methods: The sectioned images of a male cadaver’s whole body were used to build a volume model, which was continuously peeled at 1 mm thicknesses to disclose 27 selected landmarks in the anterior, lateral, or posterior views. Results: The captured views of peeled volume models along with the labels of the bone landmarks were loaded to browsing software that was distributed for free. The browsing software containing the peeled volume models will enhance convenient studying of the bone landmarks. Conclusions: With the knowledge of bone landmarks, investigators would be able to attain more accurate measurements between skin landmarks.

The sectioned images of a male’s whole body were used for making the four learning tools: the first tool to show the sectioned and color-filled images; the second tool to show surface models of individual structures; the third tool to show a volume model that was continuously peeled; the fourth tool to show a volume model that was freely sectioned. This study was intended to propose the possible learning effects of the four tools. The fourth tool that was recently developed to facilitate oblique sectioning and rotation of the volume model in real time. The four learning tools had their own characteristics, so that they could be separately used for specific achievements. Further, the combination of the tools based on the same raw data may result in a synergic effect. All the tools can be downloaded from the Visible Korean homepage (anatomy.co.kr) gratis. With the four learning tools, students may experience virtual dissection simulation regardless of the place, time, or economic status. Such free learning tools and commercial learning tools need to be improved to compensate and compete with each other.

Background The impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has profoundly affected education, with most universities changing face-to-face classes to online formats. To adapt to the COVID-19 pandemic situation, we adopted a blended learning approach to anatomy instruction that included online lectures, pre-recorded laboratory dissection videos, and 3D anatomy applications, with condensed offline cadaver dissection. Methods We aimed to examine the learning outcomes of a newly adopted anatomy educational approach by 1) comparing academic achievement between the blended learning group (the 2020 class, 108 students) and the traditional classroom learning group (the 2019 class, 104 students), and 2) an online questionnaire survey on student preference on the learning method and reasons of preference. Results The average anatomy examination scores of the 2020 class, who took online lectures and blended dissection laboratories, were significantly higher than those of the 2019 class, who participated in an offline lecture and dissection laboratories. The questionnaire survey revealed that students preferred online lectures over traditional large group lecture-based teaching because it allowed them to acquire increased self-study time, study according to their individual learning styles, and repeatedly review lecture videos. Conclusion This study suggests that a blended learning approach is an effective method for anatomy learning, and the advantage may result from increased self-directed study through online learning., Graphical Abstract

It is difficult for medical students and novice clinicians to interpret cardiac computed tomographs and echocardiographs. This study was intended to help familiarize them with the clinical images of the heart by providing software to browse the various planes of a heart’s volume model with real color and high resolution. On the sectioned images of a male cadaver, the heart and adjacent structures were segmented to obtain color-filled images. Volume models of the sectioned images and color-filled images were reconstructed and sectioned to obtain three orthogonal planes and five standard oblique planes. The planes were inputted into lab-made browsing software, which was then distributed free of charge. Users of the software would hopefully progress as follows. After experiencing the real color and high resolution, they would become familiar with the grayscale and low resolution. After experiencing the automatic annotation of the basic heart structures, they would become familiar with the detailed structures. After experiencing the designated planes, they would become familiar with the arbitrary planes. After experiencing the still heart, they would become familiar with the moving heart during echocardiography. The software, with a user-friendly interface and realistic features, is expected to properly orient medical novices to cardiac computed tomography and echocardiography images.

Background A book entitled “Visually Memorable Regional Anatomy (VMRA)” consists of extremely schematic figures as well as concise anatomic knowledge. On the other hand, in the Visible Korean (VK) project, three-dimensional surface models of 297 head structures have been reconstructed. The study's objective was to verify how the coexistence of the schematic figures and realistic surface models affected anatomy learning. Methods In the portable document format (PDF) file of VMRA, 19 pages of the surface models of the head from the PDF file of VK were embedded. The resultant PDF file was utilized as a learning tool of the medical students in two universities. Results The PDF file could be downloaded free of charge from anatomy.co.kr. The PDF file has been accessed by users from multiple countries including Korea, United States, and Hungary. In the PDF file, the surface models could be selected in any combinations, magnified, freely rotated, and compared to the corresponding schematics. The number of hours that the PDF file was used by medical students and the scores of written examination on the PDF file showed a low positive correlation in a university. The students replied that the combined PDF file was helpful for understanding anatomy and for doing cadaver dissection. They were also satisfied with the convenience of comparing the surface models and schematics. Conclusion The freely obtainable PDF file would be a beneficial tool to help students learn anatomy easily, interactively, and accurately., Graphical Abstract

Novice doctors may watch tutorial videos in training for actual or computed tomographic (CT) colonoscopy. The conventional learning videos can be complemented by virtual colonoscopy software made with a cadaver's sectioned images (SIs). The objective of this study was to assist colonoscopy trainees with the new interactive software. Submucosal segmentation on the SIs was carried out through the whole length of the large intestine. With the SIs and segmented images, a three dimensional model was reconstructed. Six-hundred seventy-one proximal colonoscopic views (conventional views) and corresponding distal colonoscopic views (simulating the retroflexion of a colonoscope) were produced. Not only navigation views showing the current location of the colonoscope tip and its course, but also, supplementary description views were elaborated. The four corresponding views were put into convenient browsing software to be downloaded free from the homepage (anatomy.co.kr). The SI colonoscopy software with the realistic images and supportive tools was available to anybody. Users could readily notice the position and direction of the virtual colonoscope tip and recognize meaningful structures in colonoscopic views. The software is expected to be an auxiliary learning tool to improve technique and related knowledge in actual and CT colonoscopies. Hopefully, the software will be updated using raw images from the Visible Korean project.

Background The curved sectional planes of the human body can provide a new approach of surface anatomy that the classical horizontal, coronal, and sagittal planes cannot do. The purpose of this study was to verify whether the curved sectional planes contribute to the morphological comprehension of anatomical structures. Methods By stacking the sectioned images of a male cadaver, a volume model of the right half body was produced (voxel size 1 mm). The sectioned images with the segmentation data were also used to build another volume model. The volume models were peeled and rotated to be screen captured. The captured images were loaded on user-friendly browsing software that had been made in the laboratory. Results The browsing software was downloadable from the authors' homepage (anatomy.co.kr). On the software, the volume model was peeled at 1 mm thicknesses and rotated at 30 degrees. Since the volume models were made from the cadaveric images, actual colors of the structures were displayed in high resolution. Thanks to the segmentation data, the structures on the volume model could be automatically annotated. Using the software, the sternocleidomastoid muscle and the internal jugular vein in the neck region, the cubital fossa in the upper limb region, and the femoral triangle in the lower limb region were observed to be described. Conclusion For the students learning various medical procedures, the software presents the needed graphic information of the human body. The curved sectional planes are expected to be a tool for disciplinary convergence of the sectional anatomy and surface anatomy., Graphical Abstract

SUMMARY: At the Southern Medical University in China, 600 medical students study macroscopic anatomy (briefly, anatomy), whereas at Ajou University in Korea, only 50 medical students study anatomy. Because of the significant difference in student numbers, the educational situations are quite dissimilar. The purpose of this study was to suggest desirable anatomy education in the large and small classes. For that purpose, the teaching of anatomy in the participating Chinese and Korean universities was compared. Subsequently, best practices and recommendations for the large and small classes were gathered from questionnaire surveys from the medical students (30 Chineses and 48 Koreans) and anatomists (12 Chinese and 2 Korean). Best practices noted were encouraging one another, while each group’s recommendations were instructive to its counterpart. Considering these findings can help to guide the progress of students’ learning and the corresponding anatomists’ activity. This report provides useful information to other anatomists who instruct large or small numbers of students.

Background The hand anatomy, including the complicated hand muscles, can be grasped by using computer-assisted learning tools with high quality two-dimensional images and three-dimensional models. The purpose of this study was to present up-to-date software tools that promote learning of stereoscopic morphology of the hand. Methods On the basis of horizontal sectioned images and outlined images of a male cadaver, vertical planes, volume models, and surface models were elaborated. Software to browse pairs of the sectioned and outlined images in orthogonal planes and software to peel and rotate the volume models, as well as a portable document format (PDF) file to select and rotate the surface models, were produced. Results All of the software tools were downloadable free of charge and usable off-line. The three types of tools for viewing multiple aspects of the hand could be adequately employed according to individual needs. Conclusion These new tools involving the realistic images of a cadaver and the diverse functions are expected to improve comprehensive knowledge of the hand shape., Graphical Abstract

El objetivo de este estudio fue producir imagenes de las rodillas de un cadaver embalsamado y otro de cadaver fresco, con diversos niveles de diseccion, flexion y rotacion, con el fin de ayudar a los estudiantes de medicina y a los medicos, en el estudio de la anatomia de la rodilla. En este estudio, la intencion fue mejorar la accesibilidad de las numerosas fotografias de la rodilla, mediante la introduccion de estas, producidas en nuestro propio programa de navegacion. El programa se puede descargar de forma gratuita desde la pagina web (anatomy.co.kr). En el programa, una matriz que constaba de cuatro fotografias: una rodilla a tres profundidades diferentes de diseccion y la misma rodilla en el estado flexionado. La rodilla podia girar de forma interactiva en cada angulo de 5°. Anotacion de las estructuras importantes de la rodilla podian ser vistas a intervalos de 90° de angulo. Con el software de navegacion, los usuarios pudieron observar caracteristicas detalladas y realistas de las rodillas flexionadas y disecadas. Ademas, la comparacion de las rodillas embalsamadas y frescas mejora la comprension de la apariencia real de la rodilla. Los datos del programa y de imagen extraible se pueden utilizar como materiales de educacion en anatomia para diversos fines.

Background For the diagnosis and surgical treatment of diseases around the cavernous sinus (CS), radiologists should achieve complete mastery of the sectional anatomy of the CS, and neurosurgeons need to understand the stereoscopic orientation of the CS and circumjacent structures. However, despite the complicated structure of the CS, the current educational resources for its sectional and stereoscopic anatomy are insufficient. Another problem is that the definition of CS walls varies for each researcher. The purpose of this study is to redefine the walls of the CS and to provide related educational materials. Methods Previous studies on the shape of the CS were analyzed. Sectioned images of a cadaver were prepared at 0.1-mm intervals to be made into three-dimensional (3D) models of the CS and neighboring structures. Results Based on other studies, the shape of the CS was redefined as a hexahedron, consisting of 6 walls, and was illustrated as a schematic figure. Scientific exactitude of the hexahedron was proven through matching the points with the actual structures on the sectioned images and 3D models that were made in this study. Conclusions The combination of the hexahedron theory, the sectioned images, and the 3D models in this study will enhance the efficiency of studying CS anatomy. The educational resources of this study can be obtained free of charge by medical students, radiologists, and neurosurgeons requiring knowledge of CS anatomy.

El objetivo de este estudio fue introducir la relacion complementaria entre una mesa virtual de diseccion (simplemente, la mesa) y un programa de libre acceso. Mediante este proceso los autores trataron de ayudar a aquellas personas interesadas en el estudio de la anatomia humana digital. El equipo Visible Korean (VK) habia presentado las imagenes de secciones consecutivas e imagenes de un cadaver de sexo masculino. Partiendo de ese punto, la compania Anatomage fabrico la mesa produciendo con los datos modelos dimensionales de volumen (3D). En forma paralela, el equipo VK reconstruyo los modelos de superficie con los mismos datos y de entrada de los modelos en formato de documento portatil (PDF), que se pudieran abrir en el ordenador personal. El equipo VK ademas lo programo para navegar a traves de las imagenes seccionadas y descritas. En este informe, la mesa y el programa VK fueron comparados para establecer su potencialidad complementaria. Tanto la mesa como el programa de libre acceso muestran modelos 3D equivalentes reconstruidos a partir de las mismas imagenes seccionadas. En ambas plataformas, se marcaron los modelos para que los usuarios reconozcan las estructuras individuales. Tanto la mesa y el programa libre tenian caracteristicas respectivas para mejorar la experiencia de diseccion virtual. La mesa incluia el hardware designado con la pantalla de tamano natural, mientras que el programa VK podia ser ejecutado en cualquier ordenador personal sin dificultad alguna. La coexistencia de la mesa y el programa libre pueden ser un apoyo importante para quienes estudien anatomia. Con el aumento de los datos de VK y el programa libre, se espera que exista una mayor cantidad de productos comerciales o gratuitos.

Objectives: Authors intended to confirm whether simultaneous watching of the surface and the volume models contributes to foot anatomy.Methods: Outlines of the skin and foot muscles were traced in the sectioned images of a cadaver to build surface models of the structures. After the outlines were filled with appointed colors, the sectioned images, including the colors, were stacked to yield the volume model of foot which was stripped from the skin little by little.Results: The stripped volumes illustrated the depth of the individual foot muscles. In clinics, the stripped volumes of the foot’scomputed tomographs and magnetic resonance images could be a solution for standardization regardless of the degrees of plantar flexion.Conclusion: The exploration of volume model, accompanied by equivalent surface models, can potentially be applied toanatomical research in order to discern the morphological properties of a region or an organ.

The aim of this study was to describe the deep circumflex iliac artery (DCIA) flap from sectioned images and stereoscopic anatomic models using Visible Korean, for the benefit of medical education and clinical training in the field of oromandibular re- constructive surgery. Serially sectioned images of the pelvic area were obtained from a cadaver. Outlines of significant structures in the sectioned images were drawn and stacked to build surface models. The PDF (portable document format) file (size, 30 MB) of the constructed models is available for free download on the Web site of the Department of Anatomy at Ajou University School of Med- icine (http://anatomy.co.kr). In the PDF file, the relevant structures of the DCIA flap can be seen in the sectioned images. All surface models and stereoscopic structures associated with the DCIA flap are displayed in real time. We hope that these state-of-the-art sectioned images, outlined images, and surface models will help students and trainees better understand the anatomy associated with DCIA flap.

This study was intended to confirm whether simultaneous examination of surface and volume models contributes to learning of hand structures. Outlines of the skin, muscles, and bones of the right hand were traced in sectioned images of a male cadaver to create surface models of the structures. After the outlines were filled with selected colors, the color-filled sectioned images were stacked to produce a volume model of the hand, from which the skin was gradually peeled. The surface models provided locational orientation of the hand structures such as extrinsic and intrinsic hand muscles, while the peeled volume model revealed the depth of the individual hand structures. In addition, the characteristic appearances of the radial artery and the wrist joint were confirmed. The exploration of the volume model accompanied by equivalent surface models is synergistically helpful for understanding the morphological properties of hand structures.

For realistic virtual dissection, the sectioned images of a cadaver are a desirable material because of their high resolution and real body color. After a volume model is made of the sectioned images, it can be piled or peeled at the intended thickness as if a structure's surface is expanded and shrunken. The purpose of our study was to confirm whether laparoscopic and endoscopic exploration of the processed volume model plays a part in anatomy investigation. The ascending colon was outlined in serially sectioned images and accumulated to build a volume model. While the volume model was being piled or peeled, the ascending colon was observed laparoscopically and endoscopically in comparison with the original sectioned image. The trial efficiently demonstrated layers of the colon wall and surrounding tissues which could not be visualized by conventional macroscopic or microscopic techniques. The availability and contribution of this new method will be confirmed by application to other various organs.

The sectioned images and surface models of a cadaver head in the Visible Korean Project would be more beneficial if they were accessible and informative. To this aim, 3 policies were established: (1) the data are promptly obtainable and observable; (2) the graphic data are accompanied by explaining the anatomic terms; and (3) two-dimensional images and three-dimensional models are shown together. According to the policies, the following were attempted. Two hundred thirty-five couples of sectioned images and outlined images (intervals, 1 mm) of the head were prepared. Browsing software was developed where the 2 corresponding images were displayed simultaneously. In addition, the structures in the images were recognized with the aid of automatic labeling. From the outlined images, surface models of 178 head structures were con- structed. The two-dimensional surface models including the sec- tioned images were embedded into the three-dimensional surface models. All the models were categorized into systems and arranged to be inputted to a PDF (portable document format) file. The fi- nalized PDF file containing comprehensive head data could be ex- plored on Adobe Reader. If the user clicked on the surface models, their anatomic names were highlighted. The sectioned images, outlined images, and surface models in the browsing software and PDF file can be downloaded from the homepage (anatomy.co.kr) free of charge. The state-of-the-art graphic information will hopefully assist medical students in learning head anatomy. In addition, the raw data are expected to contribute to the various clinical practice simulations.

The Visible Human Projects, which were launched in the United States, have also been developed in Korea and China during the past decade. This article includes the new trials to promote a variety of their applications. In a Korean laboratory, whole bodies of two cadavers were serially sectioned (Visible Korean), while two Chinese institutes have sectioned nine cadavers (Chinese Visible Human and Virtual Chinese Human). For acquiring sectioned images and stereoscopic models of better quality, appropriate cadavers were chosen; equipments and techniques for embedding, sectioning, photography, and computer processing were continuously improved in the two countries. To facilitate the research, Korean and Chinese scientists have visited each other. The sectioned images with thinner intervals (0.2 mm or less) and higher resolution were obtained. From the advanced data, the segmented images of comprehensive structures were prepared to construct three-dimensional models. Then, cross-sectional images and models were offered for medical education and clinical practice such as electronic anatomy atlas and virtual lumbar puncture. Every project has its strengths and weaknesses with regard to the image data; users in the world can choose the project that best suits their needs.

Three-dimensional models have played important roles in medical simulation and education. Surface models can be manipu- lated in real time and even online; surface models have significant features for an interactive simulation system. The objective surface models are obtainable from accumulation of each structure's outlines, followed by surface reconstruction. The aim of this research was to suggest the arranged methods of surface reconstruction, which might be applied to building surface models from serial images, such as computed tomographic scans and magnetic resonance images. We used recent state-of-the-art sectioned images of a cadaver head in which several structures were delineated. Four reconstruction meth- ods were regulated according to the structure's morphology: all out- lines of a structure are overlapped and singular (method 1), overlapped and not singular (method 2), not overlapped but singular (method 3), and neither overlapped nor singular (method 4). From the trials with various kinds of head structures, we strongly suggested methods 1 and 2, in which volume reconstruction before surface reconstruc- tion accelerated the processing speed on 3D-DOCTOR. So as to use methods 1 and 2, how to make the neighboring outlines overlapped in advance was discussed. The surface models of detailed head struc- tures prepared in this investigation will hopefully contribute to vari- ous simulations for clinical practice. The value of the surface models are enhanced if they are placed over the original sectioned images, outlined images, and magnetic resonance images of the same cadaver.

Unlike volume models, surface models representing hollow, three-dimensional images have a small file size; allowing them to be displayed, rotated, and modified in real time. Therefore, surface models of lumbosacral structures can be effectively used for interactive simulation of, e.g., virtual lumbar puncture, virtual surgery of herniated lumbar discs, and virtual epidural anesthesia. In this paper, we present surface models of extensive lumbosacral structures which can be used in medical simulation systems. One-hundred and thirty-eight chosen structures included the spinal cord, lumbar and sacral nerves, vertebrae, intervertebral discs, ligaments, muscles, arteries, and skin. The structures were outlined in the sectioned images from the Visible Korean. From these outlined images, serial outlines of each structure were stacked. Adopting commercial software (3D-DOCTOR, Maya), an advanced surface reconstruction technique was applied to create a surface model of the structure. In the surface models, we observed the anatomical relationships of the lumbosacral structures (e.g., cauda equina and ligaments) in detail. Additionally, the portions of some spinal nerves that could not be outlined were drawn and added to the surface models. These constructed models will hopefully facilitate development of high quality medical simulation of the lumbosacral region.

Unlike computed tomographic images and magnetic resonance images (MRIs), sectioned images of the human body with real color and high resolution have certain advantages in learning and teaching anatomy. Comparisons between sectioned images of the brain and MRIs are useful in many ways. Therefore, we prepared 312 MRIs at ultrahigh field 7.0 T (axial direction 0.4 times 0.4 times 0.4 mm3 voxel size) of a cadaver brain, 2343 sectioned images (axial direction, 0.1 mm intervals, 0.1 times 0.1 mm2 pixel size, and 48 bits color) by serial-sectioning the cadaver head, 234 segmented images in which brain regions were separately delineated (1 mm intervals and 0.1 times 0.1 mm2 pixel size) by outlining 64 head structures in sectioned images. Three-dimensional images of 64 head structures were made by volume reconstruction from sectioned images. In this research, advanced techniques and equipment enabled us to prepare quality 7.0-T MRIs, sectioned images, and segmented images of the head. These images are expected to contribute to our understanding of the topographic neuroanatomy of the head and to aid interpretations of MRIs and CTs of the human brain.

For the Visible Korean Human (VKH), a male cadaver was serially ground off to acquire the serially sectioned images (SSIs) of a whole human body. Thereafter, more than 700 structures in the SSIs were outlined to produce detailed segmented images; the SSIs and segmented images were volume- and surface-reconstructed to create three-dimensional models. For outlining and reconstruction, popular software (Photoshop, MRIcro, Maya, AutoCAD, 3ds max, and Rhino) was mainly used; the technique can be reproduced by other investigators for creating their own images. For refining the segmentation and volume reconstruction, the VOXEL-MAN system was used. The continuously upgraded technique was applied to a female cadaver's pelvis to produce the SSIs with 0.1mm sized intervals and 0.1mm x 0.1mm sized pixels. The VKH data, distributed worldwide, encouraged researchers to develop virtual dissection, virtual endoscopy, and virtual lumbar puncture contributing to medical education and clinical practice. In the future, a virtual image library including all the Visible Human Project data, Chinese Visible Human data, and VKH data will hopefully be established where users will be able to download one of the data sets for medical applications.

A Korean voxel model, named 'High-Definition Reference Korean-Man (HDRK-Man)', was constructed using high-resolution color photographic images that were obtained by serially sectioning the cadaver of a 33-year-old Korean adult male. The body height and weight, the skeletal mass and the dimensions of the individual organs and tissues were adjusted to the reference Korean data. The resulting model was then implemented into a Monte Carlo particle transport code, MCNPX, to calculate the dose conversion coefficients for the internal organs and tissues. The calculated values, overall, were reasonable in comparison with the values from other adult voxel models. HDRK-Man showed higher dose conversion coefficients than other models, due to the facts that HDRK-Man has a smaller torso and that the arms of HDRK-Man are shifted backward. The developed model is believed to adequately represent average Korean radiation workers and thus can be used for more accurate calculation of dose conversion coefficients for Korean radiation workers in the future.

In this study, a high-quality voxel model of a Korean adult male was constructed using the Visible Korean Human (VKH) project's serially sectioned anatomical images. The VKH images are transverse color photographs obtained from the serial sectioning of an adult Korean male cadaver (164 cm, 55 kg) at 0.2 mm intervals. A total of 28 organs and tissues were segmented with the color photographic images. The height and weight of the constructed voxel model, VKH-Man, is 164 cm and 59.6 kg, respectively. The voxel resolution of the model is 1.875 mm x 1.875 mm x 2 mm. The developed model was implemented into a Monte Carlo particle transport simulation code, MCNPX, to calculate the organ and tissue doses and, thereby, the effective doses, and the calculated values were compared with the values obtained from other computational models (KTMAN-2, VIP-Man, and ICRP-74).

The thousands of serial images used for medical pedagogy cannot be included in a printed book; they also cannot be efficiently handled by ordinary image viewer software. The purpose of this study was to provide browsing software to grasp serial medical images efficiently. The primary function of the newly programmed software was to select images using 3 types of interfaces: buttons or a horizontal scroll bar, a vertical scroll bar, and a checkbox. The secondary function was to show the names of the structures that had been outlined on the images. To confirm the functions of the software, 3 different types of image data of cadavers (sectioned and outlined images, volume models of the stomach, and photos of the dissected knees) were inputted. The browsing software was downloadable for free from the homepage (anatomy.co.kr) and available off-line. The data sets provided could be replaced by any developers for their educational achievements. We anticipate that the software will contribute to medical education by allowing users to browse a variety of images., Graphical Abstract

Background and Objectives: This study examined the learning effect of surface models made from the sectioned images of a male cadaver. Materials and Methods: The first author guided 46 medical students to study with a portable document format (PDF) file containing hundreds of surface models of a whole body. Their level of anatomy knowledge gained was evaluated by a digital examination on the tablet computers using the captured movies of PDF file. Results: The medical students' grades on the surface models were positively correlated with those on the remainder of the anatomy quiz. More than half of the students reported that the PDF file was helpful in anatomy learning and cadaver dissection. Conclusions: Digital anatomy learning is under continuous development in many ways. This report shows that surface models of the human body can be effective for self-learning and in the evaluation of anatomy knowledge.

The Visible Korean research team used Mimics software (Materialise, Leuven, Belgium) for the segmentation and subsequent surface reconstruction of heart structures using information obtained from sectioned images of a cadaver. Twenty-six heart components were outlined in advance on Photoshop (Adobe Systems, San Jose, CA, USA). By use of the Mimics, the outlined images were then browsed along with the vertical planes as well as the 3-dimensional surface models, which were immediately built by piling the images. Erroneous delineation was readily detected and revised until satisfactory heart models were acquired. The surface models and the selected sectioned images in horizontal, coronal, and sagittal planes were inputted into a PDF file, where any combinations of reconstructed constituents could be displayed and rotated by the user. Mimics software accelerated the segmentation and surface reconstruction of heart anatomical structures. Similar benefits hopefully result from various serial images of other organs. The PDF file, and plane and stereoscopic image data are being distributed to others, and should prove valuable for medical students and clinicians.

We intended to determine that virtual endoscopy and laparoscopy of the stomach based on serially sectioned cadaver images is beneficial. Therefore, the outlines between the gastric wall and lumen were traced using the new female data of the Visible Korean to build a volume model. While the outlines were expanded at appropriate thicknesses, the stomach was observed endoscopically and laparoscopically in comparison with a chosen sectioned image. Four layers (mucosa, submucosa, muscular layer, and serosa) of the stomach were discernible by their proper colors in the sectioned images. All layers except the submucosa were identified in the endoscopic and laparoscopic views by using consistent colors. The stepwise expansion of the outlines revealed thickness of each layer as well as whether the thickness was uniform. Our ideas and the Visible Korean images could be a robust resource of virtual reality learning for medical students and clinicians. Graphical Abstract

Even in the rapidly changing field of cadaver dissection, published guide books still play an important role in the anatomy lab. However, commercial manuals with lengthy volumes and inflexible copyrights have several limitations which can be complemented by open-source manuals. Recently, the authors have manufactured and distributed a free electronic dissection manual (anatomy.co.kr), where descriptions are written concisely and images are drawn schematically. Moreover, simplified signs are employed to represent the cadaver viewing angles and manner of dissection. Based on the original files of this manual, other anatomists can revise and utilize the descriptions and figures. We expect many updated versions of our manual to be shared between students all over the world.

In our previous research, we created state-of-the-art sectioned images, color-coded images, and surface models of the human ear. Our ear data would be more beneficial and informative if they were more easily accessible. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to distribute the browsing software and the PDF file in which ear images are to be readily obtainable and freely explored. Another goal was to inform other researchers of our methods for establishing the browsing software and the PDF file. To achieve this, sectioned images and color-coded images of ear were prepared (voxel size 0.1 mm). In the color-coded images, structures related to hearing, equilibrium, and structures originated from the first and second pharyngeal arches were segmented supplementarily. The sectioned and color-coded images of right ear were added to the browsing software, which displayed the images serially along with structure names. The surface models were reconstructed to be combined into the PDF file where they could be freely manipulated. Using the browsing software and PDF file, sectional and three-dimensional shapes of ear structures could be comprehended in detail. Furthermore, using the PDF file, clinical knowledge could be identified through virtual otoscopy. Therefore, the presented educational tools will be helpful to medical students and otologists by improving their knowledge of ear anatomy. The browsing software and PDF file can be downloaded without charge and registration at our homepage (http://anatomy.dongguk.ac.kr/ear/).

Current learning tools such as photographs, cadavers, and computer models are not sufficient for learning the comprehensive anatomy of the kidney and its surroundings. The objective of this research was to aid medical students by presenting tutorial software that contains peeled and piled volume models of the kidney. The sectioned images of donated female cadaver (age at death, 26 years; cause of death, stomach cancer; kidney pathology, none) were stacked to reconstruct three-dimensional volume model (voxel size, 0.2 mm) (1). Peeling and piling of the model were continuously carried out (intervals, 0.4 mm) to explore the inside and outside of the kidney (2).

In the Visible Korean project, serially sectioned images of the pelvis were made from a female cadaver. Outlines of significant structures in the sectioned images were drawn and stacked to build surface models. To improve the accessibility and informational content of these data, a five-step process was designed and implemented. First, 154 pelvic structures were outlined with additional surface reconstruction to prepare the image data. Second, the sectioned and outlined images (in a browsing software) as well as the surface models (in a PDF file) were placed on the Visible Korean homepage in a readily-accessible format. Third, all image data were visualized with interactive elements to stimulate creative learning. Fourth, two-dimensional (2D) images and three-dimensional (3D) models were superimposed on one another to provide context and spatial information for students viewing these data. Fifth, images were designed such that structure names would be shown when the mouse pointer hovered over the 2D images or the 3D models. The state-of-the-art sectioned images, outlined images, and surface models, arranged and systematized as described in this study, will aid students in understanding the anatomy of female pelvis. The graphic data accompanied by corresponding magnetic resonance images and computed tomographs are expected to promote the production of 3D simulators for clinical practice.

The interpretation of computed tomographs (CTs) and magnetic resonance images (MRIs) to diagnose clinical conditions requires basic knowledge of sectional anatomy. Sectional anatomy has traditionally been taught using sectioned cadavers, atlases, and/or computer software. The computer software commonly used for this subject is practical and efficient for students but could be more advanced. The objective of this research was to present browsing software developed from the Visible Korean images that can be used for teaching sectional anatomy. One thousand seven hundred and two sets of MRIs, CTs, and sectioned images (intervals, one millimeter) of a whole male cadaver were prepared. Over 900 structures in the sectioned images were outlined and then filled with different colors to elaborate each structure. Software was developed where four corresponding images could be displayed simultaneously; in addition, the structures in the image data could be readily recognized with the aid of the color-filled outlines. The software, distributed free of charge, could be a valuable tool to teach medical students. For example, sectional anatomy could be taught by showing the sectioned images with real color and high resolution. Students could then review the lecture by using the sectioned and color-filled images on their own computers. Students could also be evaluated using the same software. Furthermore, other investigators would be able to replace the images for more comprehensive sectional anatomy.

Sectioned images of cadavers enable creation of realistic three-dimensional (3D) models. In order to build a 3D model of a structure, the structure has to be outlined in the sectioned images. The outlining process is time consuming; therefore, users want to be provided with outlined images. The more detailed structures are outlined, the greater potential for wider application of the outlined images.In the Visible Korean, sectioned images (intervals 0.2 mm) of the entire body of a male cadaver were prepared. In the available 1,702 sectioned images (intervals 1 mm), 937 structures were outlined over a period of 8 years. The outlined images were altered to black-filled images for each structure; black-filled images were selected for distribution in order to maintain small file sizes.We attempted to determine whether black-filled images could be used in various situations. The outlines of these images were interpolated for production of new images at 0.2 mm intervals. The outlines were then filled with different colors for construction of color-filled images of all structures. Volume and surface reconstructions of the black-filled images were executed in order to build volume and surface models.The black-filled images with corresponding sectioned images presented here are the source of realistic 3D models for use in medical simulation systems.

Serially sectioned images of whole cadavers have become available through the work of four projects: the Visible Human Project, the Visible Korean, the Chinese Visible Human, and the Virtual Chinese Human (VCH). For the VCH, new techniques and equipment were developed and applied to two female and two male cadavers to overcome some of the limitations noted in previous studies. In this article on the VCH, the procedures described are those used on a male cadaver. The cadaver was young with little to no pathology; there were no flat back artifacts because the cadaver was frozen and embedded in the upright position. Sectioned images (intervals, 0.2 mm) were of exceptional quality and resolution (0.1 mm-sized pixels). Several specific structures were outlined (intervals, 0.6 mm) to acquire segmented images, from which surface models were constructed. The VCH data are to be distributed worldwide and are expected to encourage other investigators to produce useful three-dimensional images and develop interactive simulation programs for clinical practice.

Sectional anatomy of human brain is useful to examine the diseased brain as well as normal brain. However, intracerebral reference points for the axial, sagittal, and coronal planes of brain have not been standardized in anatomical sections or radiological images. We made 2,343 serially-sectioned images of a cadaver head with 0.1 mm intervals, 0.1 mm pixel size, and 48 bit color and obtained axial, sagittal, and coronal images based on the proposed reference system. This reference system consists of one principal reference point and two ancillary reference points. The two ancillary reference points are the anterior commissure and the posterior commissure. And the principal reference point is the midpoint of two ancillary reference points. It resides in the center of whole brain. From the principal reference point, Cartesian coordinate of x, y, z could be made to be the standard axial, sagittal, and coronal planes.

This article describes the technique of semiautomatic surface reconstruction of anatomic structures using widely available commercial software. This technique would enable researchers to promptly and objectively perform surface reconstruction, creating three-dimensional anatomic images without any assistance from computer engineers. To develop the technique, we used data from the Visible Korean Human project, which produced digitalized photographic serial images of an entire cadaver. We selected 114 anatomic structures (skin [1], bones [32], knee joint structures [7], muscles [60], arteries [7], and nerves [7]) from the 976 anatomic images which were generated from the left lower limb of the cadaver. Using Adobe Photoshop, the selected anatomic structures in each serial image were outlined, creating a segmented image. The Photoshop files were then converted into Adobe Illustrator files to prepare isolated segmented images, so that the contours of the structure could be viewed independent of the surrounding anatomy. Using Alias Maya, these isolated segmented images were then stacked to construct a contour image. Gaps between the contour lines were filled with surfaces, and three-dimensional surface reconstruction could be visualized with Rhinoceros. Surface imperfections were then corrected to complete the three-dimensional images in Alias Maya. We believe that the three-dimensional anatomic images created by these methods will have widespread application in both medical education and research.

Virtual anatomy system is helpful in medical education. We designed and implemented virtual anatomy training system for medical students. Anatomical images of Visible Korean Human (VKH) data were produced with serial sectioning of the Korean cadaver's whole body at 0.2 mm intervals. 3D volume data was made by stacking the color and segmented images, and the volume data was reconstructed with 1 mm voxel size since entire volume data is so large. We present the virtual anatomy training system using volume rendering, on which the 3D anatomical volume and 3D segmented volume can be sectioned at arbitrary angles, and the 3D rendered images of the several anatomical structures can be displayed and rotated at any angles.

The data from the Visible Human Project (VHP) and the Chinese Visible Human (CVH), which are the serially sectioned images of the entire cadaver, are being used to produce three-dimensional (3-D) images and software. The purpose of our research, the Visible Korean Human (VKH), is to produce an enhanced version of the serially sectioned images of an entire cadaver that can be used to upgrade the 3-D images and software. These improvements are achieved without drastically changing the methods developed for the VHP and CVH; thus, a complementary solution was found. A Korean male cadaver was chosen without anything perfused into the cadaver; the entire body was magnetic resonance (MR) and computed tomography (CT) scanned at 1.0-mm intervals to produce MR and CT images. After scanning, entire body of the cadaver was embedded and serially sectioned at 0.2-mm intervals; each sectioned surface was inputted into a personal computer to produce anatomical images (pixel size: 0.2 mm) without any missing images. Eleven anatomical organs in the anatomical images were segmented to produce segmented images. The anatomical and segmented images were stacked and reconstructed to produce 3-D images. The VKH is an ongoing research; we will produce a female version of the VKH and provide more detailed segmented images. The data from the VHP, CVH, and VKH will provide valuable resources to the medical image library of 3-D images and software in the field of medical education and clinical trials.

2005. The complete MR and CT images of the Korean cadaver are acquired. The cadaver is serially sectioned(interval: 0.2 mul) and inputted into the personal computer to make anatomical images (pixel size: 0.2 mm) withoutmissing images. Anatomical structures in the anatomical images are segmented. The Visible Korean Human dataset isexpected to be more beneficial than the Visible Human Project dataset in many ways. First, the Korean images will bemore helpful in diagnosing and treating patients belonging to the Oriental race. Second, the complete MR and CTimages will be more helpful in studying MR and CT images. Third, the anatomical images without missing images willbe more beneficial by making complete 3D images. Fourth, the anatomical images with thin interval (0.2 mm) andsmall pixel size (0.2 mm) will show small anatomical structures. Fifth, the additional segmented images will make 3Dimages and virtual dissection software easily.Keywords: Visible Korean Human, serially sectioned images, MR images, CT images, anatomical images, segmentedimages, Korean cadaver, 3D images, and virtual dissection software

The Visible Korean Human dataset is being made (Mar 2000 – Aug 2005) as follows. Complete MR and CT images of the Korean cadaver are acquired. The cadaver is serially sectioned (interval 0.2 mm) and inputted into the personal computer (pixel size 0.2 mm) without any missing images. The Visible Korean Human dataset is expected to be more helpful than the Visible Human Project dataset since it will provide Korean images which will help in diagnosing and treating patients belonging to the Oriental race. It also has a complete MR and CT images which will improve the study of MR and CT images. The anatomical images without any missing images will help in reconstructing more complex 3D images. Furthermore, these anatomical images are created with thin interval (0.2 mm) and small pixel size (0.2 mm).

The three-dimensional (3D) structure of the brain needs to be understood for accurate diagnosis and treatment of brain diseases. The brain of a cadaver may not always be available for dissection when it is needed. To overcome this problem, we attempted to create a 3D image and virtual dissection program of the brain using a Korean cadaver. The brain extracted from a Korean male cadaver was embedded in gelatin solution. 130 MRI of the brain were taken and 130 serially-sectioned specimens were made. All of MRI and specimens were inputted into the computer, and 10 brain components were manually segmented. A 3D image and virtual dissection program of the brain was made. Various virtual dissection functions were established, such as 1) sectioning the 3D image of the brain at free angles to represent its plane as a real image, segmented image, and MRI, 2) identifying the brain components represented in the sectioned plane, and 3) rotating the 3D image of the whole brain or the selected brain components at free angles. The resulting virtual dissection program of the brain is helpful in better understanding the 3D location and shape of the brain components and it is expected to be used as a CD-title or through Internet as an educational tool for medical students and doctors.

In the Visible Korean project, 642 three-dimensional (3D) surface models have been built from the sectioned images of a male cadaver. It was recently discovered that popular PDF file enables users to approach the numerous surface models conveniently on Adobe Reader. Purpose of this study was to present a PDF file including systematized surface models of human body as the beneficial contents. To achieve the purpose, fitting software packages were employed in accordance with the procedures. Two-dimensional (2D) surface models including the original sectioned images were embedded into the 3D surface models. The surface models were categorized into systems and then groups. The adjusted surface models were inserted to a PDF file, where relevant multimedia data were added. The finalized PDF file containing comprehensive data of a whole body could be explored in varying manners. The PDF file, downloadable freely from the homepage (http://anatomy.co.kr), is expected to be used as a satisfactory self-learning tool of anatomy. Raw data of the surface models can be extracted from the PDF file and employed for various simulations for clinical practice. The technique to organize the surface models will be applied to manufacture of other PDF files containing various multimedia contents.

The structure of the ear, which intervenes between gross anatomy and histology in size, can be best understood by means of three-dimensional (3D) surface models on a computer. Furthermore, surface models are the source of interactive simulation for clinical trials, such as tympanoplasty. The objective of this research was to elaborate the surface models of detailed ear structures, which contribute to learning anatomy or the practice of otology. We produced sectioned images of a cadaver head (pixel size, 0.1 mm; 48-bit color). In the sectioned images, the external, middle, and internal ear structures and other related components were delineated on Photoshop to acquire segmented images at 0.5-mm intervals. Segmented images of each structure were stacked, and the surface was reconstructed to generate a 3D-surface model on commercial software. Thirty surface models showed fine ear topographic anatomy (e.g., semicircular ducts), as expected. Herein, we present the corresponding sectioned images, segmented images, and surface models of ear structures that will be released together. It is hoped that these image data will stimulate the development of medical simulations. The efficient technique of segmentation and surface reconstruction enables the manufacture of surface models from other serial images (e.g., CTs and MRIs). Anat Rec, 294:559–564, 2011. V C 2011 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Authors had prepared the high-quality sectioned images of a cadaver head. For the delineation of each cerebral gyrus, three-dimensional model of the same brain was required. The purpose of this study was to develop the segmentation protocol of cerebral gyri by referring to the three-dimensional model on the personal computer. From the 114 sectioned images (intervals, 1 mm), a cerebral hemisphere was outlined. On MRIcro software, sectioned images including only the cerebral hemisphere were volume reconstructed. The volume model was rotated to capture the lateral, medial, superior, and inferior views of the cerebral hemisphere. On these four views, areas of 33 cerebral gyri were painted with colors. Derived from the painted views, the cerebral gyri in sectioned images were identified and outlined on the Photoshop to prepare segmented images. The segmented images were used for production of volume and surface models of the selected gyri. The segmentation method developed in this research is expected to be applied to other types of images, such as MRIs. Our results of the sectioned and segmented images of the cadaver brain, acquired in the present study, are hopefully utilized for medical learning tools of neuroanatomy.

The sectioned images (SIs) of the pelvis from a female cadaver are the best source of realistic threedimensional (3D) models of the female urogenital system. The purpose of this research is to present SIs and outlined images of the female pelvis with improved quality, which may be used to produce 3D models to simulate virtual dissection or surgery of the female urogenital and adjacent structures. A pelvis of Korean female cadaver which preserved buttock curve was scanned with 3T MR and CT machines. The pelvis was embedded and milled at 0.1 ㎜ intervals. All sectioned surfaces were photographed to create horizontal SIs. On the Photoshop, 73 structures were outlined in the SIs to create outlined images. Once the structures were outlined, volume and surface models of the structures could be produced. A total of 222 MRIs and 222 CTs of a female pelvis were obtained. 2,220 SIs of the pelvis were obtained (0.1 ×0.1×0.1㎣-sized voxels; 48 bits color). 222 outlined images of 73 structures were prepared at 1㎜ intervals. Once the structures were outlined, 3D volume and surface models of the structures were produced without the help of the computer programmers using MRIcro and Maya software. We have produced high quality SIs of the female pelvis accompanied by corresponding MRI and CT images. 3D volume and surface models of the female pelvic structures have been constructed. These computerized models may serve as the basis for future realistic medical simulation programs that may enhance clinical understanding of pelvic anatomy.

Objective: Cadaver's sectioned images with high resolution and real color could be used as the source of realistic three-dimensional images. If the sectioned images are registered to a patient's MRIs, three-dimensional images with high resolution and real color that fit the patient, can be produced; the three-dimensional images enable realistic virtual surgery for the patient. The objective of this study was to verify the registration of a cadaver's sectioned images to a patient's head MRIs. Methods: The sectioned images of the heads of cadaver were associated with segmented images selected at 3 mm intervals. The patient had his head MR scanned at 3 mm intervals; the MRIs were segmented. Software to register the cadaver's sectioned images to the patient's MRIs was developed. On this software, the corresponding dots were identified on both the sectioned images and the MRIs either manually or automatically using segmented images. Results: The registered sectioned images corresponded to the patient's MRIs. Both manual and automatic registrations were satisfied. Conclusion: Further study is needed for registering sectioned images to actual patients.