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Livelihood diversification is beneficial to mitigate economic and environmental risks and to improve livelihood sustainability and regional sustainable development. Unsettled herder households (UHH), settled herder households (SHH) and farmer households (FH) are different household types in far northwestern China whose livelihood diversification has not been fully explored. By applying a framework of livelihood diversification, this paper presents a comparative analysis of the characteristics and determinants of the diversification of the three household types. The results show that livelihood assets have been unequally distributed, with FH possessing the least assets, however, FH are better than UHH and SHH in the diversification of livelihood activities. Agriculture remains the most important livelihood source. The high-income groups of the three household types have a higher number of livelihood activities but do not necessarily hold an advantage in equality of livelihood activities. Labor capacity and income are positively related to the number of livelihood activities for the three household types. Livestock size is negatively associated with the number of activities of herders. Moreover, age and subsidy have negative impacts on the number of activities for UHH. Based on the findings, we provide policy suggestions on livelihood enhancement and sustainable and effective development of pastoral regions.

We determined the high-resolution allele and haplotype frequencies at the human leucocyte antigen (HLA)A, B and DRB1 loci in the Han population of Hubei province, the TB endemic area of Central China, with pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB), and established the relationship between HLA-A, B and DRB1 alleles as well as haplotypes and susceptibility to multidrug-resistant and rifampicin-resistant tuberculosis (MDR/RR-TB). Blood samples were drawn from 174 patients with MDR/RR-TB and 838 patients with drug-susceptible PTB in ethnic Han population from Hubei province (central China). Four-digit allele genotyping of HLA- A, B and DRB1 loci was performed using polymerase chain reaction with sequence-specific oligonucleotide probes (PCR- SSOP). The allele and haplotype frequencies of HLA-A, B and DRB1 were determined and compared between patients with MDR/RR-TB and patients with drug-susceptible PTB. Statistical analysis of the generated data indicated no departure from expectation of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) at all loci of the control group. Multivariate analysis identified allele DRB1*08:01 (p

Water conflicts between humans and ecosystems are key issues for sustainable water resource management. In the past decades, human-oriented regulation of water resources and construction of many hydraulic projects for hydropower generation, agricultural irrigation, and flood control has significantly altered natural flows in many rivers, resulting in increasing variances in water availabilities and flow regimes. For example, every year, a large amount of water is being diverted for agricultural irrigation in major river basins worldwide. Annually, over 70 % of water is extracted from the rivers to meet agricultural water needs in many countries. Particularly, a number of rivers are subjected to extremely high water extraction rates and the water can hardly reach the sea. Incessant declination in water availabilities has caused a series of impacts on many valuable aquatic habitats, such as riparian floodplains, wetlands, and estuaries. Due to population growth and economic development, enhanced amounts of freshwater are expected to be extracted to support human activities, further worsening such situations. Conflicts over water resources are thus intensive for human beings and ecosystems across the world. Many concerns are rising, particularly in many developing countries. For example, in China, since the early 1970s, the frequency of drying or ephemeral stream flows has been increasing in the Yellow River, which is the sixth largest river in the world. Since the early 1990s, drying took place annually in this river. Averagely, the time length without water in the lower reach of the river was approximately 100 days every year. Such extreme alterations have caused a cascade of adverse impacts on hydrological diversity, species distribution, and indigenous ecosystems in the Yellow River basin. This may eventually lead to unrecoverable effects on biodiversities, services, and even core functions of the associated ecosystems. Similarly, the other major river of China, i.e., the Yangtze River, is also subject to great alterations due to the construction of many mega water-related projects, such as the Three Gorges Dam and the South–North Water Transfer Project. Considering the pressure of stimulating economic growth in many developing countries across the world, similar constructions and projects have been undertaken. However, due to complexities of the associated river systems, as well as the interactions between humans and ecosystems, no clear results could be obtained regarding what unrecoverable and/or recoverable effects would happen because of such profound alterations. Moreover, the alterations may be multiplied by climate change, further affecting water availability and thus intensifying water competition between humans and ecosystems. In order to achieve sustainable water resource management, fostering a socio-economically and ecologically healthy consensus over water demands by humans and ecosystems is of great importance. Environmental flow that can be used to quantify the amount of water needed by a given ecosystem has become a competitive component with human water demand in watershed management. Thus, the management of water conflicts between humans and ecosystems in river basins is desired.

This study proposes an interval semiinfinite De Novo programming (ISIDP) method for the planning of water resource management systems under uncertainty. The ISIDP problem is settled by dividing it into two interactive linear programming subproblems and solving it by using a conventional simplex method. To evaluate the applicability of the proposed model, the method is applied to a case study of the Yuecheng Reservoir in Zhangweinan River Basin, China. The results indicate that the strategies generated through ISIDP would not increase the complexity in decision-making processes. Compared with the conventional optimization method, ISIDP has the advantages of (1) better reflecting the association of the system benefits with water price, (2) generating more reliable solutions with a lower risk of system failure as a result of the possible violation of constraints, and (3) providing more flexible management planning because the availability of budgets can be adjusted with the variations in water price.

The use of full-depth precast concrete panels for rehabilitation of bridge decks allows fast installation and all-weather construction. Typically, precast panels are prefabricated in a well-controlled environment, resulting in strong and durable products. Undoubtedly, they will perform well under the traffic loading and weathering. However, the panel joints that are closed later with grout pour may degrade prematurely, leading to a less desirable composite action. Obviously, the lack of overall system performance causes concerns that limit the wider application of this innovative construction method. Conventionally, cementitious grouts, epoxy mortars or polymer concretes are used for the closure pour. In general, epoxy mortars or polymer concretes have extremely low permeability and dry shrinkage, as well as good adhesion with the substrate; but they are difficult to mix and clean, very sensitive to moisture variations, and incompatible with the substrate under thermal and mechanical loads. As a result, deficient bonding may occur, particularly when longitudinal post-tensioning is not provided, causing leaking and rusting. Oppositely, cementitious grouts are easier to mix and more compatible with the concrete substrate; however, they are more prone to shrinkage. More recently, advances in cementitious materials resulted in the development of Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC). While this material has demonstrated exceptional performance when used for the closure pour; it requires special mixing to well disperse the particles and careful attention must be paid to the construction and curing practices to achieve enhanced mechanical and durability properties. As a result, testing of various types of grout materials is essential to establish the quality and serviceability of these materials. It is the intention of this paper to evaluate the performance of different cement-based grouting materials and to provide bridge engineers with useful database as to what materials are preferred for a specific project.

Laser photocoagulation treatment is often complicated by a side effect of visual impairment, which is caused by the unavoidable laser-induced retinal destruction. At present no specific is found to cure this retinopathy. The aim of this study was to observe the neuroprotective effect of bFGF on laser-induced retinal injury. Chinchilla rabbits were divided into three groups and argon laser lesions were created in the retinas. Then bFGF or dexamethasone, a widely used ophthalmic preparation, or saline was given severally by retrobulbar injection. The retinal lesions were evaluated histologically and morphometrically, and visual function was examined by ERG. The results showed that bFGF administration better preserved morphology of retinal photoreceptors and significantly diminished the area of the lesions. Furthermore, bFGF promoted the restoration of the ERG b-wave amplitude. In rabbits treated with dexamethasone, however, the lesions showed almost no ameliorative changes. This is the first study to investigate the potential role of bFGF as a remedial agent in laser photocoagulation treatment. These findings suggest that bFGF has significant neuroprotective properties in the retina and this type of neuroprotection may be of clinical significance in reducing iatrogenic laser-induced retinal injuries in humans.

In this study, an inexact fuzzy-stochastic constraint-softened programming method is developed for municipal solid waste (MSW) management under uncertainty. The developed method can deal with multiple uncertainties presented in terms of fuzzy sets, interval values and random variables. Moreover, a number of violation levels for the system constraints are allowed. This is realized through introduction of violation variables to soften system constraints, such that the model's decision space can be expanded under demanding conditions. This can help generate a range of decision alternatives under various conditions, allowing in-depth analyses of tradeoffs among economic objective, satisfaction degree, and constraint-violation risk. The developed method is applied to a case study of planning a MSW management system. The uncertain and dynamic information can be incorporated within a multi-layer scenario tree; revised decisions are permitted in each time period based on the realized values of uncertain events. Solutions associated with different satisfaction degree levels have been generated, corresponding to different constraint-violation risks. They are useful for supporting decisions of waste flow allocation and system-capacity expansion within a multistage context.

In this study, a large-scale dynamic optimization model (University of Regina Energy Model, UREM) has been developed for supporting long-term energy systems planning in the Region of Waterloo. The model can describe energy management systems as networks of a series of energy flows, transferring extracted/imported energy resources to end users through a variety of conversion and transmission technologies over a number of periods. It can successfully incorporate optimization models, scenario development and policy analysis within a general framework. Complexities in energy management systems can be systematically reflected; thus, the applicability of the modeling process can be highly enhanced. Four scenarios (including a reference case) are considered based on different energy management policies and sustainable development strategies for in-depth analysis of interactions existing among energy, socio-economy and environment in the Region. Useful solutions for the planning of energy management systems have been generated, reflecting trade-offs among energy-related, environmental and economic considerations. They are helpful for supporting (a) adjustment or justification of the existing allocation patterns of energy resources and services, (b) allocations of renewable energy resources, (c) formulation of local policies regarding energy consumption, economic development and energy structure, and (d) analysis of interactions among economic cost, system efficiency, emission mitigation and energy-supply security. Results also indicate that UREM can help tackle dynamic and interactive characteristics of the energy management system in the Region of Waterloo and can address issues concerning cost-effective allocation of energy resources and services. Thus, it can be used by decision makers as an effective technique in examining and visualizing impacts of energy and environmental policies, regional/community development strategies and emission reduction measures within an integrated and dynamic framework. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In this study, an interval-fuzzy two-stage chance-constrained integer programming (IFTCIP) method is developed for supporting environmental management under uncertainty. The IFTCIP improves upon the existing interval, fuzzy, and two-stage programming approaches by allowing uncertainties expressed as probability distributions, fuzzy sets, and discrete intervals to be directly incorporated within a general mixed integer linear programming framework. It has advantages in uncertainty reflection, policy investigation, risk assessment, and capacity-expansion analysis in comparison to the other optimization methods. Moreover, it can help examine the risk of violating system constraints and the associated consequences. The developed method is applied to the planning for facility expansion and waste-flow allocation within a municipal solid waste management system. Violations of capacity constraints are allowed under a range of significance levels, which reflects tradeoffs between the system cost and the constraint-violation risk. The results indicate that reasonable solutions for both binary and continuous variables have been generated under different risk levels. They are useful for generating desired decision alternatives with minimized system cost and constraint-violation risk under various environmental, economic, and system-reliability conditions. Generally, willingness to take a higher risk of constraint violation will guarantee a lower system cost; a strong desire to acquire a lower risk will run into a higher system cost.

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is a frontier subject in the field of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), which means the environmental assessment process for strategic actions: policies, plans or programs (PPPs). At present, Plan Environmental Impact Assessment (PEIA), the plan level of SEA, is legally required in China and the government has published a recommended technical guideline for it. This paper introduces the progress of PEIA in China and summarizes three developing phases and introduces their characteristics. According to Environmental Impact Assessment Law of the People's Republic of China (EIALPRC), the article describes the current PEIA system in China, mainly focusing on assessor, assessment targets, assessment requirements, assessment contents, assessment methods and working procedure of PEIA etc. Finally, some recommendations are proposed by the authors in order to improve PEIA in China as follows: conforming to the principle of "intervening in early stage", achieving synchronous EIA of all plans; implementing classification management on PEIA according to the degree of environmental impacts of plans; and enhancing efficiency of alternative schemes in the process of planning.

An integrated multi-objective method for environmental flow assessments was developed that considered adaptation as a pivotal factor affecting how ecosystems respond to hydrological alterations. Responses of habitat area, and the magnitude of those responses as a result of fluctuations in river discharge, were established. The requirements of typical migrated species during pivotal life-stage seasons (e.g. reproduction and juvenile growth) were integrated into the flow-needs assessment. Critical environmental flows for a typical species were defined based on two primary objectives: (1) high level of habitat area and (2) low variability. After integrating the water requirements for various species with the maximum acceptable discharge boundary, appropriate temporal limits of environmental flows for ecosystems were recommended. The method was applied in the Yellow River Estuary in Eastern Shandong province, China. Our data show that, while recommended environmental flows established with ecological adaptation in mind may not necessarily benefit short-term survival of a typical resident organism on a limited temporal or spatial scale, they may encourage long-term, stable biodiversity and ecosystem health. Thus, short-term ecosystem losses are compensated by significant long-term gains.

With the intensification of the global energy crisis, the production cost of enterprises is continuously increasing because of the rising fuel prices and high requirements for environmental protection. As result, energy savings and environmental protection are vital considerations for a variety of enterprises. As a practical energy-saving technology, oxygen- enriched combustion has played a major role in energy saving and emissions reduction as its application in industrial furnaces has been popularized in recent years. This experiment was conducted in a cement rotary kiln with a capacity of 4000 t/d in a factory in China. Based on measured data in the oxygen-enriched combustion experiment, we determined the patterns of variation in the main parameters of the cement rotary kiln under oxygen-enriched production conditions. The results provide important theoretical and practical base for the cement building materials industry in energy saving and emissions reduction.

To study 1.06μm laser causing pain in human skin. The skin of human dorsum hand was irradiated by a Nd: YAG laser. The energy of each pulse and whether the subjects felt a painful sensation after each stimulus were recorded. The pain threshold was defined as the laser dose at which the subjects reported a painful sensation to 50% of stimulus deliveries. The pain thresholds were determined under 3 different beam diameter and pulse duration conditions. The influence of skin temperature on the pain caused by laser stimulus was also explored. As the temperature of skin was about 30°C, the pain thresholds were 394mJ/mm 2 , 36.4mJ/mm 2 and 8.92mJ/mm 2 respectively under the stimulating condition of 1.20mm beam diameter and 85μs pulse duration, 1.20mm beam diameter and 20ns pulse duration and 2.56mm beam diameter and 20ns pulse duration. Under the first condition, when skin temperature was 25°C and radiant exposure was 383mJ/mm 2 , the probability of laser stimulus causing pain was 16.7%; when skin temperature was 39°C and radiant exposure was 361mJ/mm 2 , the probability was 56.7%. The threshold of 1.06μm laser stimulus causing pain decreases with decreasing pulse duration, increasing beam diameter and skin temperature.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been proved a successful method for port wine stain (PWS), but the prolonged skin photosensitivity induced by the photosensitizers used currently seriously limits the clinical application of PDT. In this study, we investigate the feasibility of hypocrellin B (HB), a promising second-generation photosensitizer for the treatment of PWS. The photodynamic effect of liposome-delivered HB was evaluated in vitro with microvascular endothelial cells (MEC) and in vivo with chicken combs. The dark cytotoxicity and photocytotoxicity of liposomal HB in MEC were evaluated using the MTT assay. Gross and histological examinations were performed to investigate the selective occlusion of the superficial dermal microvasculature in the chicken comb. The result showed that photocytotoxicity of liposomal HB was dependent on both light dose and drug concentration. PDT with HB (0.5?1?mg?kg?1) and a light dose of 120?J?cm?2 showed selective destruction of the superficial dermal microvasculature of the chicken comb, leaving the overlying epidermis intact. This is the first study to investigate the potential efficacy of HB-PDT as a novel modality for the treatment of PWS. These findings suggest that liposomal HB is a safe and effective photosensitizer for PWS.