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The space sector is a new area of development for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies. However, it deals with strong particularities which complicate the use of LCA. One of the most important is that the space industry is the only human activity crossing all stages of the atmosphere during the launch event or the atmospheric re-entry. As a result, interactions occur not only with the natural environment but also with the orbital environment during the use phase and the end-of-life of space missions. In this context, there is a lack of indicators and methods to characterise the complete life-cycle of space systems including their impact on the orbital environment. The end-of-life of spacecraft is of particular concern: space debris proliferation is today a concrete threat for all space activities. Therefore, the proposed work aims at characterising the orbital environment in term of space debris crossing the orbital resource. A complete methodology and a set of characterisation factors at midpoint level are provided. They are based on two factors: (i) the exposure to space debris in a given orbit and (ii) the severity of a potential spacecraft break-up leading to the release of new debris in the orbital environment. Then, we demonstrate the feasibility of such approach through three theoretical post-mission disposal scenarios based on the Sentinel-1A mission parameters. The results are discussed against the propellant consumption needed in each case with the purpose of addressing potential 'burden shifting' that could occur between the Earth environment and the orbital one.

To meet the ever-growing need for performance in silicon devices, SoC providers have been increasingly relying on software-hardware cooperation. By controlling hardware resources such as power or clock management from the software, developers earn the possibility to build more flexible and power efficient applications. Despite the benefits, these hardware components are now exposed to software code and can potentially be misused as open-doors to new kind of attacks. In this work, we introduce SideLine, a novel side-channel vector based on delay-line components widely implemented in high-end SoCs. We demonstrate that these entities can be used to perform remote power side-channel attacks and we detail several attack scenarios in which an adversary process located in one processor core aims at eavesdropping the activity of a victim process located in another core. For each scenario, we demonstrate the adversary ability to fully recover the secret key of an AES algorithm running in the victim core. Even more detrimental, we show that these attacks are still practicable when a rich operating system is used.

The built environment is recognized as a major hotspot of resource use and environmental impacts. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has been increasingly used to assess the environmental impacts of construction products and buildings and a new trend is characterized by the application of LCA to larger systems such as neighborhoods during early design phases. Assessing urban development projects at the master-planning stage raises the issue of inventory data collection, especially for building materials which are reported to account for about 20% of primary energy consumption in buildings, and up to 45% of associated greenhouse gas emissions. Urban planners focus on the urban morphology and little information is known about the buildings characteristics apart from their general shape. This paper proposes a simplified model for the assessment of buildings embodied energy and embodied carbon in relation with urban planners’ design levers. The model relies on the decomposition of buildings into functional elements in order to be sensitive to the shape of the buildings. A detailed sensitivity analysis and contribution analysis of the model is conducted on two types of generic building forms, in order to investigate the influence of parameters relating to shape on the embodied energy and embodied carbon of a building. The sensitivity analysis shows that the parameters relating to shape (such as the dimension of the buildings) are more influential on the embodied energy and embodied carbon per square meter of building than the ones relating to the elements themselves (such as the wall thickness). The contribution analysis also brings evidence of the relation between the compactness factor and the embodied energy and embodied carbon of a building.

PurposeScientific Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) literature provides some examples of LCA teaching in higher education, but not a structured overview of LCA teaching contents and related competencies. Hence this paper aims at assessing and highlighting trends in LCA learning outcomes, teaching approaches and developed content used to equip graduates for their future professional practices in sustainability.MethodsBased on a literature review on teaching LCA in higher education and a collaborative consensus building approach through expert group panel discussions, an overview of LCA learning and competency levels with related teaching contents and corresponding workload is developed. The levels are built on the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) and Bloom’s taxonomy of learning.Results and discussionThe paper frames five LCA learning and competency levels that differ in terms of study program integration, workload, cognitive domain categories, learning outcomes, and envisioned professional skills. It furthermore provides insights into teaching approaches and content, including software use, related to these levels.Conclusions and recommendationsThis paper encourages and supports higher educational bodies to implement a minimum of ‘life cycle literacy’ into students’ curriculum across various domains by increasing the availability, visibility and quality of their teaching on life cycle thinking and LCA.

International audience; Thanks to their performance and flexibility, FPGAs are increasingly adopted for hardware acceleration on various platforms such as system on chip and cloud datacenters. Their use for commercial and industrial purposes raises concern about potential hardware security threats. By getting access to the FPGA fabric, an attacker could implement malicious logic to perform remote hardware attacks. Recently, several papers demonstrated that FPGA can be used to eavesdrop or disturb the activity of resources located within and outside the chip. In a complex SoC that contains a processor and a FPGA within the same die, we experimentally demonstrate that FPGA-based voltage sensors can eavesdrop computations running on the CPU and that advanced side-channel attacks can be conducted remotely to retrieve the secret key of a symmetric crypto-algorithm.

International audience; The impact of non-energetic abiotic resource use in life cycle assessment (LCA) has been receiving much attention in the last decades, and even more so since the resource efficiency and circular economy have become prominent subjects of discussion in public and private sectors all around the world. As LCA has proven to be the most solid holistic tool to integrate environmental impacts in sustainability assessments of product systems, it should be able to integrate current concerns about non-energetic abiotic resource use into its methodology and therefore provide exploitable results for every LCA user. However, to this day no consensus has been reached on which approach for characterizing impacts due to the use of these resources should be used (Drielsma et al., 2016; Sonderegger et al., 2017). This seems to be attributable to the fact that no method is recognized as both solid on the methodological level while answering at the same time the true concerns for abiotic natural resource uses in LCA: the need to retain and therefore maximize their functional value in the technosphere after their extraction in order to fulfill the needs of current and future generations, while minimizing the losses to the ecosphere. Indeed, abiotic resources are not always consumed

International audience; FPGAs have been widely adopted in cloud datacenters and System-on-Chip for hardware acceleration purposes during the past few years. For flexibility and efficiency reasons, cloud FPGA fabrics are likely to be shared between multiple users. Despite the logical isolation suggested to protect each tenant, multiuser FPGA environment raises crucial questions about the potential security threats that it may represent. Recently, a series of papers demonstrated that a malicious user could be able to use its rented logic to perform remote side-channel and fault attacks on other user assets located inside the fabric or in the surrounding chips. In this paper, we present a novel implementation method for ring oscillator based voltage sensors that enables runtime supply voltage fluctuation measurement. Considering a multiuser FPGA cloud scenario, we evaluate our sensor performances for side-channel purposes by performing CPA attacks against a hardware AES module instantiated within the same FPGA fabric. Then, we compare our results with existing voltage sensors and also demonstrate that, when calibrated, our sensors can provide results similar to traditional electromagnetic side-channel setups.

Multifunctionality in life-cycle assessment (LCA) is solved with allocation, for which many different procedures are available. Lack of sufficient guidance and difficulties to identify the correct allocation approach cause a large number of combinations of methods to exist in scientific literature. This paper reviews allocation procedures for recycling situations, with the aim to identify a systematic approach to apply allocation. Assumptions and definitions for the most important terms related to multifunctionality and recycling in LCA are given. The most relevant allocation procedures are identified from literature. These procedures are expressed in mathematical formulas and schemes and arranged in a systematic framework based on the underlying objectives and assumptions of the procedures. If the LCA goal asks for an attributional approach, multifunctionality can be solved by applying system expansion—i.e. including the co-functions in the functional unit—or partitioning. The cut-off approach is a form of partitioning, attributing all the impacts to the functional unit. If the LCA goal asks for a consequential approach, substitution is applied, for which three methods are identified: the end-of-life recycling method and the waste mining method, which are combined in the 50/50 method. We propose to merge these methods in a new formula: the market price-based substitution method. The inclusion of economic values and maintaining a strict separation between attributional and consequential LCA are considered to increase realism and consistency of the LCA method. We identified the most pertinent allocation procedures—for recycling as well as co-production and energy recovery—and expressed them in mathematical formulas and schemes. Based on the underlying objectives of the allocation procedures, we positioned them in a systematic and consistent framework, relating the procedures to the LCA goal definition and an attributional or consequential approach. We identified a new substitution method that replaces the three existing methods in consequential LCA. Further research should test the validity of the systematic framework and the market price-based substitution method by means of case studies.

Multifunctionality in LCA can be solved by several allocation procedures. Various official guidelines give divergent recommendations in which allocation procedure to apply, and up to now, no consensus has been reached. We aim to identify the obstacles to a consistent allocation approach that can be applied to all product categories and is supported by a broad range of stakeholders. Based on a systematic framework for consistent allocation, developed by Schrijvers et al. (Int J Life Cycle Assess, 2016), we identify five review criteria that indicate the degree of consistency in the proposed allocation procedure of official guidelines. Several relevant guidelines, i.e. ISO 14044, ISO/TR 14049, ISO/TS 14067, the ILCD Handbook, BP X30-323-0, PAS 2050, the Greenhouse Gas Protocol, EN15804, PEF Guide and guidance documents for EPDs and PCRs, are reviewed according to these criteria. None of the investigated guidelines fully follows the systematic framework for allocation. Often, different approaches are recommended for co-products and recycled materials, although the boundary between these flows is not always clear. Many guidelines do not recognize the existence of different LCA goals; therefore, elements of attributional and consequential LCAs are often mixed. The market situation of the recycled material is not always taken into account, e.g. in the mandatory 50/50 method of the PEF Guide. The ILCD Handbook and the General Programme Instructions for the International EPD® System provide most consistent guidance. We argue that consistency does not require a one-formula-fits-all method, as this would favour some product categories and only responds to a certain LCA goal. A critical review of guidelines against a systematic framework for allocation of co-products and recycled materials shows that few guidelines propose a consistent allocation approach. The main obstacles for consistency are the different approaches for co-production and (different types of open-loop) recycling and disregarding of different LCA goals and recycled material markets. We recommend to include material specific guidance in Product Category Rules on the determination of market prices, quality determining factors and relevant material properties for different applications.

International audience; The emphasis on the sustainable urban water management has increased over the last decades. In this context decision makers need tools to measure and improve the environmental performance of urban water systems (UWS) and their related scenarios. In this paper, we propose a versatile model, named WaLA (Water system Life cycle Assessment), which reduces the complexity of the UWS while ensuring a good representation of water issues and fulfilling life cycle assessment (LCA) requirements. Indeed, LCAs require building UWS models, which can be tedious if several scenarios are to be compared. The WaLA model is based on a framework that uses a 'generic component' representing alternately water technology units and water users, with their associated water flows, and the associated impacts due to water deprivation, emissions, operation and infrastructure. UWS scenarios can be built by inter-operating and connecting the technologies and users components in a modular and integrated way. The model calculates life cycle impacts at a monthly temporal resolution for a set of services provided to users, as defined by the scenario. It also provides the ratio of impacts to amount of services provided and useful information for UWS diagnosis or comparison of different scenarios. The model is implemented in a Matlab/Simulink interface thanks to object-oriented programming. The applicability of the model is demonstrated using a virtual case study based on available life cycle inventory data.

International audience; A framework and an associated modeling tool to perform life cycle assessment (LCA) of urban water system, namely the WaLA model, has been recently developed. In this paper, the WaLA model is applied to a real case study: the urban water system of the Paris suburban area, in France. It aims to verify the capacity of the model to provide environmental insights to stakeholder's issues related to future trends influencing the system (e.g., evolution of water demand, increasing water scarcity) or policy responses (e.g., choices of water resources and technologies). This is achieved by evaluating a baseline scenario for 2012 and several forecasting scenarios for 2022 and 2050. The scenarios are designed through the modeling tool WaLA, which is implemented in Simulink/Matlab: it combines components representing the different technologies, users and resources of the UWS. The life cycle inventories of the technologies and users components include water quantity and quality changes, specific operation (electricity, chemicals) and infrastructures data (construction materials). The methods selected for the LCIA are midpoint ILCD, midpoint water deprivation impacts at the sub-river basin scale, and endpoint Impact 2002þ. The results of the baseline scenario show that wastewater treatment plants have the highest impacts compared to drinking water production and distribution, as traditionally encountered in LCA of UWS. The results of the forecasting scenarios show important changes in water deprivation impacts due to water management choices or effects of climate change. They also enable to identify tradeoffs with other impact categories and to compare several scenarios. It suggests the capacity of the model to deliver information for decision making about future policies.

International audience; In this paper, we present how SEMBA, a fast invasive technique for white team Hardware Trojan detection, has been used to differentiate between a maliciously infected integrated circuit and a genuine one. Our methodology is based on the observation of the component’s hardware structure and includes the use of wet etching, Scanning Electron Microscopy and Multiple Image Alignment. Once the Integrated Circuits’ image have been fully reconstructed, image processing allows to detect the presence of the Hardware Trojan (HT). SEMBA is a fully automated approach with a 100% success rate, detecting any ‘transistor-size’ HTs and requiring ‘affordable’ resources and time.

International audience; Nowadays, the security level of secure integrated circuits makes simple attacks less efficient. The combination of invasive approaches and fault attacks can be seen as more and more pertinent to retrieve secrets from integrated circuits. This article includes a practical methodology and its application. We first describe how to retrieve the physical areas of interest for the attack. Then, we perform a deep fault injection characterization of the area of found. For the former, a methodology based on circuit preparation, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) acquisitions, image registration and processing is given allowing to perform a controlled and localized laser fault attack with a state of the art injection platform. The laser fault injection presented here allows the attacker to perform a "bit-set", a "bit-reset" or a full register "reset". Controlling the value stored in a flip-flop is critical for security. To illustrate this methodology, an encryption algorithm is targeted. We see that efficient method that takes advantage of the comparison between faulty and correct cipher texts, such as Differential Fault Analysis (DFA) or "Safe Error", are particularly relevant with the proposed methodology. The overall methodology can efficiently be used to speed up an attack and to improve the test coverage.

International audience; Water is a growing concern in cities, and its sustainable management is very complex. Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been increasingly used to assess the environmental impacts of water technologies during the last 20 years. This review aims at compiling all LCA papers related to water technologies, out of which 18 LCA studies deals with whole urban water systems (UWS). A focus is carried out on these 18 case studies which are analyzed ac- cording to criteria derived from the four phases of LCA international standards. The results show that whereas the case studies share a common goal, i.e., providing quantitative in- formation to policy makers on the environmental impacts of urban water systems and their forecasting scenarios, they are based on different scopes, resulting in the selection of different functional units and system boundaries. A quantitative comparison of life cycle inventory and life cycle impact assessment data is provided, and the results are discussed. It shows the superiority of information offered by multi-criteria approaches for decision making compared to that derived from mono-criterion. From this review, recommenda- tions on the way to conduct the environmental assessment of urban water systems are given, e.g., the need to provide consistent mass balances in terms of emissions and water flows. Remaining challenges for urban water system LCAs are identified, such as a better consideration of water users and resources and the inclusion of recent LCA developments (territorial approaches and water-related impacts).; L'eau est une préoccupation croissante dans les villes, et sa gestion durable est très complexe. L'analyse du cycle de vie (ACV) a été de plus en plus utilisé pour évaluer les impacts environnementaux des technologies de l'eau au cours des 20 dernières années. Cet examen vise à compiler tous les documents de l'ACV liés aux technologies de l'eau, dont 18 études ACV traite des systèmes d'eau urbains entiers (UWS). Une mise au point est effectuée sur ces 18 études de cas qui sont analysés selon des critères issus des quatre phases de normes internationales ACV. Les résultats montrent que, tandis que les études de cas partagent un objectif commun, à savoir, fourniture d'informations quantitatives pour les décideurs politiques sur les impacts environnementaux des systèmes d'eau urbains et leurs scénarios de prévision, ils sont basés sur des portées différentes, ce qui entraîne la sélection des différents fonctionnelle unités et les limites du système. Une comparaison quantitative de l'inventaire du cycle de vie et du cycle de vie des données d'évaluation d'impact est fourni, et les résultats sont discutés. Il montre la supériorité de l'information offerte par les approches multi-critères pour la prise de décision par rapport aux informations provenant de mono-critère. De cet examen, des recommandations sur la façon de procéder à l'évaluation environnementale des systèmes d'eau urbains sont donnés, par exemple, la nécessité de fournir des bilans de masse cohérentes en termes d'émissions et des flux d'eau. Défis à relever pour le système des eaux urbaines ACV sont identifiés, comme une meilleure prise en compte des utilisateurs et des ressources en eau et l'inclusion de l'évolution récente de l'ACV (approches territoriales et les impacts liés à l'eau).

International audience; Laser fault injections have been evolving rapidly with the advent of more precise, sophisticated and cost-efficient sources, optics and control circuits. In this paper, we show a methodology to improve the test coverage and to speed up analysis based on laser fault injections by only targeting standard cells of interest. We describe how to identify interesting spatial positions thanks to the use of some chemicals along with an automated Scanning Electron Microscope image acquisition, alignment and processing. Using the latter information, fault injections with a high success rate have been obtained against a hardware implemented AES module using a laser beam. With such tools and methodology, we show that attacks become much faster.

International audience; Today's trend in the smart card industry is to move from ROM+EEPROM chips to Flash-only products. Recent publications have illustrated the vulnerability of Floating Gate memories to UV and heat radiation. In this paper, we explain how, by using low cost means, such a vulnerability can be used to modify specific data within an EEPROM memory even in the presence of a given type of counter-measure. Using simple means, we devise a fault injection tool that consistently causes predictable modifications of the targeted memories' contents by flipping `1's to `0's. By mastering the location of those modifications, we illustrate how we can reverse-engineer a simple address scrambling mechanism in a white box analysis of a given EEPROM. Such an approach can be used to test the security of Floating Gate memories used in security devices like smart cards. We also explain how to prevent such attacks and we propose some counter-measures that can be either implemented on the hardware level by chip designers or on the software level in the Operating System interacting with those memories.