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RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVE Three-dimensional (3D) printed anatomic models and surgical guides have been shown to reduce operative time. The purpose of this study was to generate an economic analysis of the cost-saving potential of 3D printed anatomic models and surgical guides in orthopedic and maxillofacial surgical applications. MATERIALS AND METHODS A targeted literature search identified operating room cost-per-minute and studies that quantified time saved using 3D printed constructs. Studies that reported operative time differences due to 3D printed anatomic models or surgical guides were reviewed and cataloged. A mean of $62 per operating room minute (range of $22–$133 per minute) was used as the reference standard for operating room time cost. Different financial scenarios were modeled with the provided cost-per-minute of operating room time (using high, mean, and low values) and mean time saved using 3D printed constructs. RESULTS Seven studies using 3D printed anatomic models in surgical care demonstrated a mean 62 minutes ($3720/case saved from reduced time) of time saved, and 25 studies of 3D printed surgical guides demonstrated a mean 23 minutes time saved ($1488/case saved from reduced time). An estimated 63 models or guides per year (or 1.2/week) were predicted to be the minimum number to breakeven and account for annual fixed costs. CONCLUSION Based on the literature-based financial analyses, medical 3D printing appears to reduce operating room costs secondary to shortening procedure times. While resource-intensive, 3D printed constructs used in patients’ operative care provides considerable downstream value to health systems.

Rationale and Objectives Additive manufacturing may be used as a form of personalized medicine in interventional radiology by allowing for the creation of customized bioactive constructs such as catheters that can act as a form of localized drug delivery. The purpose of the present in vitro study was to use three-dimensional (3D) printing to construct bioactive-laden bioabsorbable catheters impregnated with antibiotics and chemotherapeutics. Materials and Methods Polylactic acid bioplastic pellets were coated with the powdered bioactive compounds gentamicin sulfate (GS) or methotrexate (MTX) to incorporate these drugs into the 3D printed constructs. The pellets were then extruded into drug-impregnated filament for fused deposition modeling 3D printing. Computer-aided design files were generated in the shapes of 14-F catheters. Scanning electron microscope imaging was used to visualize the presence of the additive powders on the surface of the printed constructs. Elution profiles were run on the antibiotic-laden catheter and MTX-laden catheters. Antibiotic-laden catheters were tested on bacterial broth and plate cultures. Results Both GS and MTX catheter constructs had sustained drug release up to the 5-day limit of testing. The 3D printed GS-enhanced catheters inhibited all bacterial growth in broth cultures and had an average zone of inhibition of 858 ± 118 mm2 on bacterial plates, whereas control catheters had no effect. Conclusion The 3D printing manufacturing method to create instruments in percutaneous procedures is feasible. Further in vivo studies will substantiate these findings.

Osteomyelitis is typically a bacterial infection (usually from Staphylococcus) or, more rarely, a fungal infection of the bone. It can occur in any bone in the body, but it most often affects the long bones (leg and arm), vertebral (spine), and bones of the foot. Microbial success in osteomyelitis is due to their ability to form biofilms which inhibit the wound healing process and increases resistance to anti-infective agents. Also, biofilms do not allow easy penetration of antibiotics into their matrix making clinical treatment a challenge. The development of local antibiotic delivery systems that deliver high concentrations of antibiotics to the affected site is an emerging area of research with great potential. Standard treatment includes antibiotic therapy, either locally or systemically and refractory cases of osteomyelitis may lead to surgical intervention and a prolonged course of antibiotic treatment involving placement of antibiotic-doped beads or spacers within the wound site. There are disadvantages with this treatment modality including insufficient mixing of the antibiotic, lack of uniform bead size, resulting in lower antibiotic availability, and limitations on the antibiotics employed. Thus, a method is needed to address biofilm formations in the wound and on the surface of the surgical implants to prevent osteomyelitis. In this study, we show that all antibiotics studied were successfully doped into PMMA and antibiotic-doped 3D printed beads, disks, and filaments were easily printed. The growth inhibition capacity of the antibiotic-loaded PMMA 3D printed constructs was also demonstrated., Graphical abstract Image 1, Highlights • Local antibiotic delivery systems that provide high antibiotic concentrations is an emerging area of research. • A method for 3D printing antibiotic-doped PMMA was developed to prevent and remediate bone infection and biofilm formation. • Antibiotics were doped into PMMA and antibiotic-doped 3D printed beads, disks, and filaments were successfully printed. • Growth inhibition assays showed the efficacy of antibiotic-loaded PMMA 3D printed constructs in inhibiting bacterial growth.

3D printing is an additive manufacturing technology, which permits innovative approaches for incorporating antibiotics into 3D printed constructs. Antibiotic-incorporating applications in medicine have included medical implants, prostheses, along with procedural and surgical instruments. 3D-printed antibiotic-impregnated devices offer the advantages of increased surface area for drug distribution, sequential layers of antibiotics produced through layer-by-layer fabrication, and the ability to rapidly fabricate constructs based on patient-specific anatomies. To date, fused deposition modeling has been the main 3D printing method used to incorporate antibiotics, although inkjet and stereolithography techniques have also been described. This review offers a state-of-the-art summary of studies that incorporate antibiotics into 3D-printed constructs and summarizes the rationale, challenges, and future directions for the potential use of this technology in patient care.

Background Selected medical implants and other 3D printed constructs could potentially benefit from the ability to incorporate contrast agents into their structure. The purpose of the present study is to create 3D printed surgical meshes impregnated with iodinated, gadolinium, and barium contrast agents and characterize their computed tomography (CT) imaging characteristics. Commercial fused deposition layering 3D printing was used to construct surgical meshes impregnated with imaging contrast agents in an in vitro model. Polycaprolactone (PCL) meshes were printed containing iodinated, gadolinium, or barium contrast; control PCL meshes without contrast were also fabricated. The three different contrast agents were mixed with PCL powder and directly loaded into the 3D printer. CT images of the three contrast-containing meshes and the control meshes were acquired and analyzed using small elliptical regions of interest to record the Hounsfield units (HU) of each mesh. Subsequently, to test their solubility and sustainability, the contrast-containing meshes were placed in a 37 °C agar solution for 7 days and imaged by CT at days 1, 3 and 7. Results All 3D printed meshes were visible on CT. Iodinated contrast meshes had the highest attenuation (2528 mean HU), significantly higher than both and gadolinium (1178 mean HU) and barium (592 mean HU) containing meshes. Only barium meshes sustained their visibility in the agar solution; the iodine and gadolinium meshes were poorly perceptible and had significantly lower mean HU compared to their pre-agar solution imaging, with iodine and gadolinium present in the adjacent agar at day 7 CT. Conclusion 3D prints embedded with contrast materials through this method displayed excellent visibility on CT; however, only barium mesh maintained visibility after 7 days incubation on agar at human body temperature. This method of 3D printing with barium may have potential applications in a variety of highly personalized and CT visible medical devices.

Purpose After cleft lip and palate surgical procedures, patients often need nostril supports to help the reconstructed nostrils retain their shape during healing. Many postoperative nasal stents use a one-size-fits-all approach, in which a standard rubber tube retainer is trimmed and used to support the healing nares. The purpose of this study was to examine photogrammetry and 3-dimensional (3D) printing as a fabrication tool for postoperative patient-specific nasal supports that can be loaded with bioactive agents for localized delivery. Materials and Methods A “normal” right nostril injection mold was prepared from a left-sided unilateral cleft defect, and the negative-space impression was modeled using a series of photographs taken at different rotation angles with a commercial mobile phone camera. These images were “stitched” together using photogrammetry software, and the computer-generated models were reflected, joined, and digitally sculpted to generate hollow bilateral supports. Three-dimensional prints were coated with polyvinylpyrrolidone-penicillin and validated for their ability to inhibit Escherichia coli using human blood agar diffusion assays. Results The results showed that our approach had a high level of contour replication and the antibiotic coating was able to inhibit bacterial growth with a mean zone of inhibition of 15.15 ± 0.99 mm (n = 9) (P Conclusions Consumer-grade 3D printing displays potential as a fabrication method for postoperative cleft bilateral nasal supports and may support the surgically reconstructed internal contours. The results of this study suggest that such types of bioactive 3D prints may have potential applications in personalized drug-delivery systems and medical devices.

Aim To evaluate the influence of number and location of catheter shaft side holes regarding drainage efficiency in an in vitro model. Materials and methods Three different drainage catheter models were constructed: open-ended model with no side holes (one catheter), unilateral side hole model (six catheters with one to six unilateral side holes), and bilateral side hole model (six catheters with one to six bilateral side holes). Catheters were inserted into a drainage output-measuring device with a constant-pressure reservoir of water. The volume of water evacuated by each of the catheters at 10-second intervals was measured. A total of five trials were performed for each catheter. Data were analysed using one-way analysis of variance. Results The open-ended catheter had a mean drainage volume comparable to the unilateral model catheters with three, four, and five side holes. Unilateral model catheters had significant drainage volume increases up to three side holes; unilateral model catheters with more than three side holes had no significant improvement in drainage volume. All bilateral model catheters had significantly higher mean drainage volumes than their unilateral counterparts. There was no significant difference between the mean drainage volume with one, two, or three pairs of bilateral side holes. Further, there was no drainage improvement by adding additional bilateral side holes. Conclusion The present in vitro study suggests that beyond a critical side hole number threshold, adding more distal side holes does not improve catheter drainage efficiency. These results may be used to enhance catheter design towards improving their drainage efficiency.

Rationale and Objectives Innovation and entrepreneurship in health care can help solve the current health care crisis by creating products and services that improve quality and convenience while reducing costs. Materials and Methods To effectively drive innovation and entrepreneurship within the current health care delivery environment, academic institutions will need to provide education, promote networking across disciplines, align incentives, and adapt institutional cultures. This article provides a general review of entrepreneurship and commercialization from the perspective of academic radiology departments, drawing on information sources in several disciplines including radiology, medicine, law, and business. Conclusions Our review will discuss the role of universities in supporting academic entrepreneurship, identify drivers of entrepreneurship, detail opportunities for academic radiologists, and outline key strategies that foster greater involvement of radiologists in entrepreneurial efforts and encourage leadership to embrace and support entrepreneurship.

Jeffery A Weisman,1 James C Nicholson,2 Karthik Tappa,1 UdayaBhanu Jammalamadaka,1 Chester G Wilson,2 David K Mills1,3 1Center for Biomedical Engineering and Rehabilitation Science, 2Nanosystems Engineering, 3School of Biological Sciences, Louisiana Technical University, Ruston, LA, USAAbstract: Three-dimensional (3D) printing and additive manufacturing holds potential for highly personalized medicine, and its introduction into clinical medicine will have many implications for patient care. This paper demonstrates the first application of 3D printing as a method for the potential sustained delivery of antibiotic and chemotherapeutic drugs from constructs for patient treatment. Our design is focused on the on-demand production of anti-infective and chemotherapeutic filaments that can be used to create discs, beads, catheters, or any medical construct using a 3D printing system. The design parameters for this project were to create a system that could be modularly loaded with bioactive agents. All 3D-printed constructs were loaded with either gentamicin or methotrexate and were optimized for efficient and extended antibacterial and cancer growth-inhibiting cytostatic activity. Preliminary results demonstrate that combining gentamicin and methotrexate with polylactic acid forms a composite possessing a superior combination of strength, versatility, and enhanced drug delivery. Antibacterial effects and a reduction in proliferation of osteosarcoma cells were observed with all constructs, attesting to the technical and clinical viability of our composites. In this study, 3D constructs were loaded with gentamicin and methotrexate, but the method can be extended to many other drugs. This method could permit clinicians to provide customized and tailored treatment that allows patient-specific treatment of disease and has significant potential for use as a tunable drug delivery system with sustained-release capacity for an array of biomedical applications. Keywords: three-dimensional printing, polymers, antibacterial, drug delivery, medical device

Nasoalveolar molding of the cleft lip, nose, and alveolar palate has been a successful strategy for the restoration of oronasal function and appearance, but it has some drawbacks. The temporary implant that is inserted before surgical reconstruction is a large appliance requiring numerous adjustments, it can irritate delicate soft tissues, and interfere with the infant’s ability to nurse or feed. In the early post-operative period and for months after cleft lip repair, patients wear standardized silicone stents that come in multiple sizes, but require significant sculpting to fit the unique cleft deformity. Three-dimensional (3D) printing offers the potential of highly personalized and patient-specific treatment. We developed a method that produces a customized 3D printed stent that matches the contours and unique features of each patient and permits modification and adjustments in size and shape as the patient ages. With 3D scanning technology, the device can be designed at the first visit to create an appliance that can be worn sequentially with minimal trauma, does not impede feeding, and a prosthesis that will improve compliance. The device will be worn intraorally to help shape the alveolus, lip, and nose before surgical repair. Furthermore, the stent can be doped with drugs as each patient’s case warrants.

3D printing has the potential to deliver personalized implants and devices for obstetric and gynecologic applications. The aim of this study is to engineer customizable and biodegradable 3D printed implant materials that can elute estrogen and/or progesterone. All 3D constructs were printed using polycaprolactone (PCL) biodegradable polymer laden with estrogen or progesterone and were subjected to hormone-release profile studies using ELISA kits. Material thermal properties were tested using thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry. The 3D printed constructs showed extended hormonal release over a one week period. Cytocompatibility and bioactivity were assessed using a luciferase assay. The hormone-laden 3D printed constructs demonstrated an increase in luciferase activity and without any deleterious effects. Thermal properties of the PCL and hormones showed degradation temperatures above that of the temperature used in the additive manufacturing process-suggesting that 3D printing can be achieved below the degradation temperatures of the hormones. Sample constructs in the shape of surgical meshes, subdermal rods, intrauterine devices and pessaries were designed and printed. 3D printing of estrogen and progesterone-eluting constructs was feasible in this proof of concept study. These custom designs have the potential to act as a form of personalized medicine for drug delivery and optimized fit based on patient-specific anatomy.

Additive manufacturing has great potential for personalized medicine in osseous fixation surgery, including maxillofacial and orthopedic applications. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate 3D printing methods for the fabrication of patient-specific fixation implants that allow for localized drug delivery. 3D printing was used to fabricate gentamicin (GS) and methotrexate (MTX)-loaded fixation devices, including screws, pins, and bone plates. Scaffolds with different infill ratios of polylactic acid (PLA), both without drugs and impregnated with GS and MTX, were printed into cylindrical and rectangular-shaped constructs for compressive and flexural strength mechanical testing, respectively. Bland PLA constructs showed significantly higher flexural strength when printed in a Y axis at 100% infill compared to other axes and infill ratios, however, there was no significant difference in flexural strength between other axes and infill ratios. GS and MTX-impregnated constructs had significantly lower flexural and compressive strength as compared to the bland PLA constructs. GS-impregnated implants demonstrated bacterial inhibition in plate cultures. Similarly, MTX-impregnated implants demonstrated a cytotoxic effect in osteosarcoma assays. This proof of concept work shows the potential of developing 3D printed screws and plating materials with the requisite mechanical properties and orientations. Drug-impregnated implants were technically successful and had an anti-bacterial and chemotherapeutic effect, but drug addition significantly decreased the flexural and compressive strengths of the custom implants.

Purpose: To describe the results from percutaneous management of traumatic enteral fistula abscesses (TEFA) by a sequential approach that includes abscess drainage, cannulation of the enteral fistula, and downsizing the drainage catheter. Materials and Methods: IRB approved retrospective study of patients that underwent percutaneous drainage of TEFA from 2005-2013 at our academic center. All patients had a diagnostic abdominal contrast-enhanced CT of the abdomen. Indication for drainage was intraabdominal abscess. Patients were managed with antibiotics, percutaneous drainage, and catheter irrigation. Drainage catheter sizes ranged from 10-F to 24-F. Multiple catheters were used for collections 4 6 cm diameter or with viscous fluid. Post drainage follow-up included CT scans and catheter sinograms for residual abscess cavity evaluation and bowel communication presence. Enteral fistulas were cannulated with 10-F catheters that were kept closed. Abscess drainage catheters were downsized as the abscess cavity decreased in size while a tract from the bowel to the skin was maintained. Once the single fistulous tract was established, the catheter within the bowel was downsized and removed. Parameters measured were abscess resolution and enteral fistula closure, the need for surgery, complications, and patient outcome. Results: There were 24 patients, 15 males and 9 females, with TEFA. Their age range was 27 to 79 years (mean 52.5 years old). Causes were: postoperative, 19 patients; post-ERCP, 3 patients; gunshot wound, 2 patients. Fistulas involved the esophagus, 2 patients; stomach, 2 patients; small bowel, 15 patients; and colon, 5 patients. Abscess resolution occurred in 23 patients (failure, 1 patient with necrotic tumor) without the need for surgery. The enteral fistula persisted in 3 patients: 2 patients as a jejunostomy feeding tube and failure to close in 1 patient with advanced cancer. Drainage catheter duration ranged from 15 to 184 days (mean 79.7 days). Three patients died: cancer, stroke, multiorgan failure, 1 patient each. Conclusion: The described three-stage approach was effective in resolving challenging TEFA that originated from bowel perforation.