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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to place the idea of the learning organization in a historical, multidisciplinary context with the aim of identifying obstacles and opportunities for its greater realization in practice. Design/methodology/approach Marking the 30th anniversary of publication of Peter Senge's “The Fifth Discipline”, the paper reflects on approaches to the study and analysis of organizations over the past century from German sociology, human relations, organization development, the learning organization to responses to the Covid-19 pandemic. Findings It is suggested that distributed leadership is critical to the realization of organizational learning and its absence is a major inhibitor of such learning. Following Argyris, it is argued that high levels of skill (personal mastery) may, in some circumstances, provide a barrier to organizational learning in the face of contextual uncertainty and change. Research limitations/implications While no specific areas of research are proposed, questions are raised which may only be answered in the wake of appropriate (interdisciplinary) research. Practical implications The reflective nature of the paper suggests that significant reform is required in the legislation that encourages short-term thinking on the part of institutional investors to the detriment of strategic thinking and long-term planning. Social implications The Covid-19 pandemic seems to have provided an opportunity to redress a perceived imbalance between traditional organizational thinking and opportunities demonstrated by effective community action, for reappraisal of organizations as communities of people as well as being formalized structures, systems and processes. Originality/value This paper seeks to synthesize diverse theories of organization with the aim of stimulating further innovation in approaches to organizational learning.

Purpose This paper aims to locate its appreciation of the life and work of Arie de Geus within the context of developments in approaches to management practice, education and learning since the Second World War. It emphasizes the important influence of top management-led applications of social science (Beckhard) and the impact of crises upon planning and the generation of memories of the future for effective organizational learning. The paper also describes the roles of learning from experience and of reflective practice in shaping de Geus’ contribution. Design/methodology/approach The approach traces the development of de Geus' career and thinking from Shell cost accountant, to top line manager in three continents, to Head of Shell Group Planning, to prize winning author, to global adviser to the World bank, etc., and as an inspirational speaker as champion of the learning organization. Findings The paper acknowledges Arie de Geus as coining the phrase “The Learning Organization” together with his role in the foundation and development of the Society for Organizational Learning (SOL) and as an international champion of young people's learning through the processes of the Finnish Team Academy model. Social implications Arie de Geus was an exemplar of reflective practice and applied learning. As such, his contribution might be considered as that of a sage rather than as a guru. Originality/value The paper endeavours to emphasize the importance of the role of both the internal and external contexts for effective organizational learning, suggesting that the contribution of Arie de Geus to the field exemplifies this importance.

Summary Background Among asymptomatic patients with severe carotid artery stenosis but no recent stroke or transient cerebral ischaemia, either carotid artery stenting (CAS) or carotid endarterectomy (CEA) can restore patency and reduce long-term stroke risks. However, from recent national registry data, each option causes about 1% procedural risk of disabling stroke or death. Comparison of their long-term protective effects requires large-scale randomised evidence. Methods ACST-2 is an international multicentre randomised trial of CAS versus CEA among asymptomatic patients with severe stenosis thought to require intervention, interpreted with all other relevant trials. Patients were eligible if they had severe unilateral or bilateral carotid artery stenosis and both doctor and patient agreed that a carotid procedure should be undertaken, but they were substantially uncertain which one to choose. Patients were randomly allocated to CAS or CEA and followed up at 1 month and then annually, for a mean 5 years. Procedural events were those within 30 days of the intervention. Intention-to-treat analyses are provided. Analyses including procedural hazards use tabular methods. Analyses and meta-analyses of non-procedural strokes use Kaplan-Meier and log-rank methods. The trial is registered with the ISRCTN registry, ISRCTN21144362. Findings Between Jan 15, 2008, and Dec 31, 2020, 3625 patients in 130 centres were randomly allocated, 1811 to CAS and 1814 to CEA, with good compliance, good medical therapy and a mean 5 years of follow-up. Overall, 1% had disabling stroke or death procedurally (15 allocated to CAS and 18 to CEA) and 2% had non-disabling procedural stroke (48 allocated to CAS and 29 to CEA). Kaplan-Meier estimates of 5-year non-procedural stroke were 2·5% in each group for fatal or disabling stroke, and 5·3% with CAS versus 4·5% with CEA for any stroke (rate ratio [RR] 1·16, 95% CI 0·86–1·57; p=0·33). Combining RRs for any non-procedural stroke in all CAS versus CEA trials, the RR was similar in symptomatic and asymptomatic patients (overall RR 1·11, 95% CI 0·91–1·32; p=0·21). Interpretation Serious complications are similarly uncommon after competent CAS and CEA, and the long-term effects of these two carotid artery procedures on fatal or disabling stroke are comparable. Funding UK Medical Research Council and Health Technology Assessment Programme.

Whilst traditional chemically amplified resists (CAR) support the initial insertion of EUV lithography, a wide range of other resist materials are being examined for future nodes, aiming to identify a photoresist that simultaneously meets RLS and defectivity requirements. It is becoming increasingly clear that this should involve a novel mechanism—a new chemistry that can be tuned to allow for improvement of the RLS requirements. One potential approach is the multi-trigger concept wherein a reaction will only occur when multiple elements of the resist are initiated concurrently and in close spatial proximity. At the centre of exposed features, where the exposure dose is sufficient the resist reaction is thus catalytic as in a CAR, but at the edge of the features the reaction is secondorder in nature, and thus the chemical gradient is increased. In effect the resist features an intrinsic, inversely dose dependent, quenching of the catalysis, enhancing chemical contrast and thus resolution, and reducing roughness, whilst eliminating the materials stochastics impact of a separate quencher. The multi-trigger material previously presented consists of a base molecule and a crosslinker, which represent the resist matrix, together with a photoacid generator (PAG). Research has been undertaken to improve this resist, in particular focusing on improving resist opacity and crosslinking density. Our work on high-Z cross-linker molecules mark I and mark II has previously been reported and LER figures below 3 nm for lines and spaces patterned at 14 nm half pitch using the high opacity MTR resist on the EUV-IL exposure tool at PSI were shown. Here we present results from further work focused on the enhancement of the high-opacity MTR resist. A new high- Z crosslinker molecule, mark III, has been synthesized and introduced in the MTR resist to make the high opacity MTR compatible with the ethyl lactate and PGMEA casting solvents. We report results obtained using the new MTR system containing the high-Z cross-linker mark III, with a variation of process conditions and formulation variations. The lithographic performance, of a formulation containing this crosslinker, at pitch 32nm patterned on an NXE3350 is presented A biased LWR of 4.2 nm for a line width of 15.1 nm is shown. Introducing a PEB induces performance changes for the MTR4L3Y(2) resist. The sensitivity improves by over 20% with 80 °C PEB. However, the PEB does lead to a 12% increase of the LWR. Overall, the lowest Z factor (using biased LWR) occurs with a 60 °C PEB temperature. The Z factor is also significantly lower with a film thickness of 22.5 nm compared to 20 nm. The thickest film thickness tested using the NXE3350 is 22.5 nm. However, at PSI, 12 nm lines on a 28 nm pitch were patterned with an LWR of 2.07 nm using a film thickness of 25 nm. In addition to varying the opacity of the resist, we have also investigated increasing the activation energy of the selfquenching aspect of the MTR system. In this case, MTR8 has a higher activation energy than MTR4. Having a higher activation energy should allow introduction of PEB to increase crosslinking and reduce pattern collapse, whilst simultaneously preserving the self-quenching behaviour. We present results which show a decrease in dose and Zfactor using MTR8 at this formulation ratio compared to MTR4, when tested at PSI. The results also show a Z factor improvement when using a 60 °C PEB. A standard opacity multi trigger resist was patterned on the MET5 at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and the effect of different development processes was studied using 1:1 dense line features at pitch 32nm. Reducing the development time in nBA had an adverse effect on pattern collapse and LWR. However, changing to on track development process using 2-heptanone gives a 10% LWR improvement at the 25 nm film thickness studied. Additionally, a pillar pattern was studied when using a film thickness of 28 nm. Here we present pillars with a LCDU of 1.85 nm with a CD of 21.4 nm patterned at a 40 nm pitch.

Introduction This Hospital’s Alcohol Team provides a 7-day service, cited in the 10 Year NHS England Plan as having improved the quality of alcohol-related care. The Alcohol Team receive over 1700 referrals per year – predominantly from assessment wards where screening for potential alcohol issues of new admissions is mandatory and routine. Alcohol screening had not traditionally been routine for A&E patients. There were concerns that the introduction of mandatory screening might risk complicating patient assessment, treatment and timely discharge. Initiatives were introduced to increase the incidence of screening in A&E. An analysis was undertaken on the impact of these initiatives on referrals and patients. Methods Initiatives introduced in 2018 1) Partnership working between AE Development of an Alcohol Assessment sticker, for optional incorporation into patient AE Training targeted to AE A&E Link Nurse developed promotional displays and acted as a champion in A&E to raise awareness. Referral data was audited to assess the impact of the initiatives on referrals. A 10% randomised sample of referrals was further analysed to assess the impact of the increase in referrals. Case Studies were captured to illustrate the benefits of earlier identification of alcohol issues. Results There was a 16% increase (240 patients) in total referrals received: 1523 (2017) to 1763 (2018). AE the average length of stay of those discharged patients was 5.6 hours (compared to 6.0 hours in 2017), and 48% of these patients were discharged in under four hours (compared to 42% the previous year). Specific cases were captured in case studies to illustrate the mechanisms through which early identification of potential alcohol issues can lead to better management of alcohol-related issues, facilitate safe discharge and reduce length of stay. Conclusions The screening, education, and partnership initiatives led to an increase in referrals from A&E to the hospital alcohol team. An audit of referrals suggests the earlier identification of alcohol-related issues in A&E has not had negative impacts on discharges and length of stay from A&E. In practice the Alcohol Team has found that earlier identification of potential issues has enabled them to intervene earlier to improve the management and timely discharge of patients.

An 84-year-old gentleman was referred to the chest clinic with low oxygen saturations on pulse oximetry. He reported breathlessness and wheeze since his retirement as a surveyor 16 years previously. His exercise tolerance was 350 m. He had pre-existing diagnoses of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and hypertension. He had no avian or occupational exposures, a minimal smoking history while in his teens and had not smoked since, and no history of transient ischaemic attack or cerebrovascular accident. On examination, he was comfortable with no respiratory distress but had slight peripheral cyanosis and oxygen saturations of 89% on room air. Auscultation of his chest revealed increased vocal fremitus and crackles over the right lower lobe with occasional wheeze. The patient was investigated using lung function testing, capillary blood gas sampling, a chest radiograph and thoracic computed tomography (CT). His haemoglobin at presentation was 16.1 g·dL−1. ### Lung function The results of the lung function investigations performed as shown in table 1. Supine and erect spirometry demonstrated oxygen saturations of 93% when lying down and 86% on sitting. There was no significant reversibility to 2.5 mg nebulised salbutamol. View this table: Table 1 Lung function A capillary blood gas taken on air at rest showed an oxygen tension ( P O2) of 8.0 kPa (normal 12.0–15.0 kPa), a carbon dioxide tension ( P CO2) of 4.4 kPa (normal 4.5–6.1 kPa) and pH of 7.44 (normal 7.36–7.42). ### CT CT images are shown in figure 1. Figure 1 a) Axial and b) coronal CT slice. ### Task 1 1. What is seen on the initial CT scan (fig. 1). 2. What conditions can be associated with this? 3. Can you interpret the lung function results (table 1)? ### Answer 1 1. There is a 2-cm vascular abnormality in the right lower lobe consistent with a pulmonary arteriovenous malformation (PAVM). 2. PAVMs are most commonly seen with hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia (>90%) and post-cardiac …

The PROSPER (Proof and Specification Assisted Design Environments) project advocates the use of toolkits which allow existing verification tools to be adapted to a more flexible format so that they may be treated as components. A system incorporating such tools becomes another component that can be embedded in an application. This paper describes the PROSPER Toolkit which enables this. The nature of communication between components is specified in a language-independent way. It is implemented in several common programming languages to allow a wide variety of tools to have access to the toolkit.

The system design and results of a user evaluation of Co-Star an immersive design system for cable harness design is described. The system used a stereoscopic head mounted graphical display, user motion tracking and hand-gesture controlled interface to enable cable harnesses to be designed using direct 3D user interaction with a product model. In order to determine how such a system interface would be used by a designer and to obtain user feedback on its main features a practical user evaluation was undertaken involving ten participants each completing three cable harness design tasks with the system. All user interactions with the system were recorded in a time stamped log file during each of the tasks, which were also followed by questionnaire (5 point scale) and interview sessions with each participant. The recorded interaction data for the third task was analysed using functional decomposition techniques and used to construct a single activity profile for the task based on the mean results obtained from the participant group. The goal was to identify in general terms the relative distribution of user activity between specific purposes during practical system operation, and it was found that in this task Navigation accounted for 41%, Design 27%, System Operation 23% and looking at Task Instructions 9% of all user activity. The scored questionnaire data collected immediately after the completion of each task was used to rank the major features of the system according to user opinion. This was further enhanced by also collecting real interview comments from the user group about these same features. The combination of both quantitative performance analysis and subjective user opinion data obtained during a practical design exercise has enabled an in depth evaluation of the system, leading to a much greater understanding of many of the key user and interface requirements that should be considered during the development of immersive interfaces and systems for practical engineering applications.

Virtual reality (VR) has the potential to substantially alter the manner in which products of the future are engineered. Currently there are many applications of VR during the product engineering process from design and analysis through to process planning, assembly, machining and shop floor layout. VR takes a multitude of forms, including immersive, desktop, augmented, and is rapidly developing as a tool that can be used in the engineering of products. This paper looks at the use of immersive VR as a tool for analysing both design and manufacturing product engineering activities in a series of research projects involving assembly planning and cable harness design. It focuses particularly on the use of the non-intrusive logging of users in such environments as a means to obtaining a rich data source for activity analysis and its potential within computer integrated manufacturing environments as a means of providing downstream engineering data.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the potential use of virtual reality systems in facilities management design solutions.Design/methodology/approach – The approach focuses on the human designer and acknowledges the importance of human input to the design process. The development of a metaphor‐based VR system is reported along with initial field trials, which compare VR with conventional CAD systems.Findings – In the context of facilities management solutions advantages of using VR over CAD are shown and discussed along with strengths, weaknesses and future work.Research limitations/implications – The literature reviewed is not exhaustive. Many concepts are mentioned and referenced but not explained fully due to space constraints. The research suggests the future use of VR systems in FM solutions.Practical implications – This paper discusses immersive virtual reality (VR) in support of building design tasks as an innovative tool, enabling more effective facilities management ...

In recent years there have been moves in industrial engineering towards greater automation through intelligent systems and this has resulted in replacing human expertise. In many cases the potential of intelligent systems has yet to be realised. This paper presents and discusses an alternative technological approach, which uses immersive virtual reality (VR) to support engineering design tasks. The approach focuses on the human engineer and acknowledges the importance of human input to the design process. The development of a metaphor based VR system is reported along with initial field trials, which compare VR with conventional CAD systems. The results show advantages of using VR over CAD and these are discussed along with strengths, weaknesses and future work. @DOI: 10.1115/1.1759696#

Purpose: To assess the effect of prescription parameters on the dose received by the spine during palliative radiotherapy. Methods and Materials: In a survey, members of the Canadian Association of Radiation Oncologists were asked to define their prescription parameters for vertebral metastases. The depth of the spinal canal and vertebral body at 8 spinal levels was measured in 20 magnetic resonance imaging studies (MRIs). Survey results were applied to the measurements to assess the dose received at depth. The depth of spinal structures assessed at simulation and by diagnostic imaging was compared. Results: Prescriptions were most commonly to D max 3 cm or 5 cm using 60 Co-6MV photons delivering 8–30 Gy in 1–10 fractions. Mean depths from MRI were: posterior spinal canal, 5.5 cm; anterior spinal canal, 6.9 cm; and anterior vertebral body, 9.6 cm. Application of the prescription parameters from the survey to these measurements showed a wide range in the dose at depth with variation in technique. Depths measured at simulation correlated well with diagnostic imaging. Conclusion: The spinal canal and vertebral body lie >5 cm beneath the skin, and the dose received varies by up to 50% with changes in prescription depth. We suggest a suitable prescription point for vertebral metastases and a method for determining this at simulation.

Outlines some of the questions raised during the course of a qualitative research inquiry into the personal consequences of organisational change for directors who are “drivers” of such change. Links these questions to more general issues and trends in the organisation of work (Handy) and for human resource management priorities (Ulrich). Questions the interpretation of these trends in relation to the role of the developer, arguing that effective development involving a third party developer is always dependent on genuine partnership working. Such a way of working is particularly challenging or even threatening to developers, frequently tempting them into hiding themselves behind fashionable theories, tools and techniques, rather than risking their own learning and development while facilitating that of others. Suggests ten keys to unlocking the development potential in oneself and others and that the application of these keys can be a painful process.

Mature and post-translational precursor gastrin forms are growth factors for colorectal tumours. The immunogen Gastrimmune is composed of the amino terminus of gastrin-17 linked to diphtheria toxoid and raises antibodies in situ which neutralise amidated and glycine-extended gastrin-17. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of treatment with 5-fluorouracil(5-FU)/leucovorin on the antibody titres induced by Gastrimmune and the effect of combination therapy on the growth of the rat colon tumour DHDK12. Gastrimmune was administered to rats s.c. at 3 weekly intervals. The rat colon tumour line DHDK12 was injected into the abdominal wall of BDIX rats. Combinations of 5-FU/leucovorin were injected i.v. on days 1, 3 and 5, with the cycle repeated every 4 weeks. Antibody titres were measured by an ELISA technique. Antibody titres were followed for 40 weeks after Gastrimmune (500 microg.ml(-1)) immunization, with titres peaking between 10 and 20 weeks after a single immunisation and falling by week 30. At termination, no effect was observed on either the histological appearance of the gastro-intestinal tract or the proliferation of the colonic mucosa. Pre- and post-treatment with 5-FU/leucovorin (30 mg.kg(-1)) had no effect on the kinetics and level of antibody response to Gastrimmune. Gastrimmune (200 microg.ml(-1)) and 5-FU/leucovorin combinations (12.5 and 20 mg.kg(-1)) increased the therapeutic effects on the in vivo growth of DHDK12 tumors when compared to the agents given singly. Gastrimmune immunisation may be a therapeutic option for the treatment of colorectal cancer in combination with 5-FU/leucovorin.

Describes a process of management learning and development involving over 100 senior public sector managers in the States of Guernsey and covering a period of six years. Details the programme’s content and action learning approach which had much in common with many other management development processes. However, highlights the fact that it involved the whole spectrum of public sector activity (from policy making, service purchasing and service providing to utilities trading) and that more than 20 chief executives and their senior management teams participated in the process, which makes it somewhat unusual. Reports that, in the wake of the programme, a fundamental shift in the “doing of management” would appear to have taken place, involving a willingness to share resources, to break out of silos and to experiment across previously well‐defended boundaries; and notes that it has also generated a healthy appetite for further learning.

As the use of knowledge capture and reuse becomes more prevalent in industry, the research into how the capture process can be automated is also increasing. In this paper, research is presented on how basic design knowledge, such as design decisions and best practice, in a virtual reality-based cable harness design system can be automatically captured and represented. By automated and unobtrusive logging of a user as a design task is carried out, the resulting log file is parsed and various representations of the captured design processes are automatically generated. A user trial involving industrial collaborators was conducted to find out which of the representations were the most effective and preferred. It was discovered that users had a preference for representations that contain more visual information. Future work will involve utilising the captured knowledge to develop training tools which will aid new users performing similar design tasks.Copyright © 2010 by ASME

Throughout this book we have stressed how important it is for leaders of businesses or organizations to be aware of what is going on in the wider environment within which their business or organization is situated. The leader must be constantly on the lookout for signals and cues for possible changes or developing trends that may give rise to events that could be significant for the organization and its performance. We have discussed the importance of generating “memories of the future” through the use of techniques such as scenario planning so that the organization as a whole may become sensitive to such wider environmental trends and their possible implications. The use of such techniques and getting their messages into the organization’s bloodstream by means of the myths and stories that are told within it greatly increase the chances that signals, even weak ones, that cue the arrival of the unexpected will be picked up and that the organization will respond appropriately.

At the beginning of this book we asserted that leading an organization, whether as its CEO, managing or divisional director or general manager, whatever the particular leadership label you happen to bear, carries with it a number of obligations. Some of these will be set out in your letter of appointment, your service contract or laid down as the statutory responsibilities of anyone taking on the role of a director of a limited company. We believe that there are others, less formal, but just as important.

In this chapter we discuss two contrasting ways of thinking. Business leaders need to employ these in a balanced way when developing the goals that they wish their organizations to pursue and as they seek to gain the commitment of those upon whom they will depend if those goals are to become reality. The first of these modes of thinking owes much to the contribution that science, engineering and technology have made to the success of industrial societies over the past 250 years or so. This mode tends to be formally structured, emphasizes and favors the logical, the analytical and the objective and is popularly termed “left Brain” thinking.

We hope that in the preceding seven chapters we have gained your attention and that we may have been thought-provoking. Your next step is to prepare for action. We cannot tell you what actions you should take — the buck really does stop with you and, of course, only you are in a position to make well-informed judgements about your own business, its future, its people and its stakeholders. However, we do hope that we may have given you some insight into the issues that surround the occurrence of unexpected events which will help you to focus your thinking.

Previous research work at Heriot-Watt University using immersive virtual reality (VR) for cable harness design showed that VR provided substantial productivity gains over traditional computer-aided design (CAD) systems. This follow-on work was aimed at understanding the degree to which aspects of this technology were contributed to these benefits and to determine if engineering design and planning processes could be analysed in detail by nonintrusively monitoring and logging engineering tasks. This involved using a CAD-equivalent VR system for cable harness routing design, harness assembly and installation planning that can be functionally evaluated using a set of creative design-tasks to measure the system and users' performance. A novel design task categorisation scheme was created and formalised which broke down the cable harness design process and associated activities. The system was also used to demonstrate the automatic generation of usable bulkhead connector, cable harness assembly and cable harness installation plans from non-intrusive user logging. Finally, the data generated from the user-logging allowed the automated activity categorisation of the user actions, automated generation of process flow diagrams and chronocyclegraphs.

This paper describes the analysis of user activity during the evaluation of Co-Star, a demonstration immersive stereoscopic design system for cable harness design. During the study ten participants independently completed a sequence of three harness design tasks using the test system. All user interaction was recorded during each of the sessions and subsequently analysed to profile the distribution of user activity into five major activity classes: Design, System Operation, Navigation and Information, and Process Integration. The Design class was further sub-divided into Goal, Support, and Edit activities to produce a more detailed breakdown of this core activity. In addition measures of ‘unproductive activity’ and ‘sequence breaks’ (idle time) were used to identify relative performance within the different activities. The results clearly show the distribution of user activity for this task based on time and number of sequences of user activity and provide a compelling visualisation of this profile, with Navigation typically accounting for 41% and System Operation 23% of user activity whilst Design achieved 27%, in addition it was found that 7% of all activity was found to be unproductive, and 28% of system time was idle. Opportunities to improve operational design performance through targeted system developments can be clearly identified from these results.Copyright © 2006 by ASME

A considerable body of evidence exists suggesting that the beta(2)-adrenergic receptor (beta(2)-AR) mediates uterine relaxation. However, little information exists on the localization, distribution, or expression of beta(2)-ARs in the human myometrium during the nonpregnant to labor transition. We have used immunochemical methods to investigate beta(2)-AR localization and expression in the nonpregnant, term pregnant, and term parturient uterus. Myometrial biopsies were obtained from 1) nonpregnant, menstruating women undergoing hysterectomy; 2) singleton term pregnant women undergoing elective cesarean section before the onset of labor; or 3) singleton term pregnant women undergoing emergency cesarean section after spontaneous labor. Tissues were processed for immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, and Western blotting and a primary polyclonal antibody specific to the human beta(2)-AR to identify immunoreactive myometrial beta(2)-AR. Protein levels were subsequently quantified by densitometry relative to rat brain protein. Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence demonstrated the presence of beta(2)-AR predominantly at the plasma membrane and also in the cytosol of myometrial cells. A 2-fold decrease in protein levels of the beta(2)-AR was apparent in the myometrium of labor compared with that of nonpregnant and pregnant nonlaboring women (P < 0.05). These results demonstrate that down-regulation of beta(2)-AR protein with labor may constitute a contributory mechanism by which uterine quiescence is removed at term.

This article describes the application of principles applied in the development of a Masters programme in Public Administration in the Netherlands fifteen years ago to the design of a very different programme for senior managers in a UK public bureaucracy. Both programmes placed heavy emphasis upon the role of the manager as learner and on the importance of practical application as the most significant part of the learning process. Rather than teach techniques the development team offered a variety of well established frameworks by means of which participants were encouraged to develop their understanding of themselves, their organisations, their roles within them and the pressures for change arising within the environment of their organisation. The objective was not only to develop areas of managerial competence but, perhaps more significantly, to encourage the higher levels of confidence necessary to managing in an increasingly uncertain and pressured environment. A significant contributor to the achievement of this end was a concentration on those frameworks which had worked effectively in a wide variety of situations and circumstances rather than on more novel and, perhaps, more fashionable approaches.

The use of self‐development activities as alternatives to traditional course‐based training and management development is discussed. The author describes one company's experiment in support of self‐development, drawing on prior experiences with taskforces, project groups, MBO, assessment centres and mind mapping, to set up a self‐development workshop for a group of trainers and managers.

The immunological and histological changes occurring in the lymph node draining the site of a progressively growing intramuscular tumour (D192A) implant were monitored during a 4-week time course. Cell-mediated cytotoxicity against hepatoma-D192A and 15-day rat embryo cell targets, was detected with cells derived from the draining “lumbar” lymph node 4 days after tumour implantation and persisted up to the 2nd week of tumour growth, decreasing rapidly during the 3rd week. The observed lymph-node anergy demonstrated in cytotoxicity tests correlated with the histological findings, in that an initial marked paracortical (T-dependent) response also declined towards the end of the 3rd week of tumour growth. The B-dependent cortex showed active lymphocyte follicles in the 2nd week of the time course, and plasma-cell production continued until the experiment was terminated These changes were shown to occur with the progressive increase in lymph-node mass. Serum antibody specific for the developing tumour was detected during the latter stages of tumour growth. The immunological and histological changes displayed by lymph nodes distal to tumour growth were out of phase with those shown by the draining lymph node.

Marketing is a process of exchange in which buyers and sellers are brought together through transactions in the market place.